Table 2.

Context of Migration and Mental Health Outcomes

Authors, year	Context of migration	Migration flows		Key outcomes
		From	To
Alvi and Zaidi, 2017	Structural inequalities	India Sri Lanka Pakistan	Canada	Limited social networks, cultural differences, lack of mobility, language difficulties, dependence on children, unfulfilled care expectations, and abuse at the hands of the family led to loneliness and isolation. Physiological decline was not identified as a significant factor.
Caidi et al., 2020	Family reunification	China	Australia Canada	Language barriers, unfamiliar environments, inaccessibility of services, declining health, diminished social networks, loss of autonomy, and higher cost of living all led to psychological distress. Coping strategies included seeking out co-ethnics and expanding the local network.
Chiu and Ho, 2020	Family reunification	China	Singapore	Prioritizing future generations over oneself, time-consuming childcare duties, adapting to new environments and language, financial dependence, lack of social protection, discrimination, and loss of autonomy led to loneliness and isolation.
Chou, 2007	Family reunification	Asian countries 44.7% western and developed countries 21.5% other countries 33.8%	Australia	General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-12) score deteriorated over a period of 1 year among older migrants. Family reunification migrants had better mental health than refugees but worse than skilled labor visa holders. Older migrants from developing nations, retirees, and women experienced higher psychological distress.
Dhillon and Humble, 2020	Family reunification	India	Canada	Family reunification was found to have a positive impact on mental health. However, factors such as reliance on offspring, language barriers, and decreased social networks contributed to feelings of loneliness.
Girgis, 2020	Structural inequalities	Egypt	United States	To manage daily stress migrants leveraged social capital, family support, religious organizations, and social services as part of problem-solving coping. Emotion-focused coping involved adherence to traditional gender roles and cognitive strategies like acceptance, mindfulness, and reminiscence.
Guo et al., 2019	Family reunification	China	United States	Low income, poor health, dependence on family, weak social ties, and lack of health care access contributed to emotional distress and depression. Family support and social ties confounded the effect of age at migration on depression.
Hamilton et al., 2021	Family reunification	China Nepal Vietnam	Australia	Language barriers, cultural differences in childrearing practices, inaccessible health care, intense childcare duties, dependence on adult children, and financial concerns caused psychological distress. Community engagement promoted emotional well-being.
Karacan, 2020	Lifestyle migrants	Germany	Turkey	Despite social and economic advantages, migrants felt vulnerable due to limited familial support, fears about obtaining residence permits, limited access to public health care, and bureaucratic hurdles caused by the legal regulations of the two nation-states.
Lai and McDonald, 1995	Sponsored migrants	Hong Kong or mainland China	Canada	Both genders valued financial adequacy, social support, personal control, and psychological/physical health. Men specifically valued activity levels, while women also emphasized the length of residency in Canada, English proficiency, and self-perceived health.
Lee et al., 1996	Not stated	Korea	United States	Too much or too little contact with children was harmful, and infrequent contact with friends raised depressive symptom risk. Emotional support from family was crucial to mental health.
Montayre et al., 2017	Family reunification	Philippines	New Zealand	Immigrants were optimistic about adapting to new ways of life but faced challenges such as language barriers, navigating the health care system, cultural differences, and negative attitudes from hospital staff.
Mullins and Tucker, 1992	Lifestyle migrants	Canada	United States	Living alone was linked to emotional isolation in English Canadians, while this association was moderated by age, gender, and self-rated health in French Canadians. French Canadians with fewer children and English Canadians with fewer friends reported higher levels of isolation.
Park and Kim, 2013	Family reunification	Korea	New Zealand	Social isolation and depression resulted from language barriers, limited social life, lack of access to social welfare, decreased family support, and abuse or neglect. Gender served as a protective factor for women.
Ron, 2007	Did not want to stay in USSR	USSR	Israel	Older immigrants had significantly higher scores on measures of depression, hopelessness, and suicide ideation compared to veterans.
Sah et al., 2018	Lifestyle migrants	Nepal	United Kingdom	The absence of family, language barriers, limited mobility, housing issues, illness, fear of death, separation from children, and financial struggles led to emotional distress.
Sepulveda et al., 2016	Family reunification	African, Asian, Spanish, Middle Eastern, European, Pacific Island and Maori	Australia	Caring for grandchildren provided a sense of purpose, but exhausting childcare duties, conflicts over childrearing, and limited access to legal and immigration advice led to social isolation.
Serafica and Reyes, 2019	Family reunification	Philippine	United States	Caregiving, losing a sense of agency, authority, and confidence because of language issues, dependence on children for mobility, and diminished social networks all negatively affected the quality of life.
Stewart et al., 2011	Family reunification	Chinese, Afro-Caribbean, former Yugoslavian, and Spanish-speaking immigrant seniors	Canada	Loss of social networks, harsh climate, family conflict, dependence on family, language, and cultural barriers, exhausting childcare responsibilities, inaccessibility of governmental services, and homesickness led to social isolation and loneliness.
Treas and Mazumdar, 2002	Family reunification	Korea, Mexico, Taiwan, Iran, Egypt, Jordan, Pakistan, and Vietnam	United States	Partner loss, reduced socialization, language barriers, demanding caregiving duties, changing family dynamics, and reliance on kin for mobility led to loneliness and social isolation. Presence of partner, co-ethnics, and involvement in local organization activities protected against negative outcomes.
Treas, 2008	Family reunification	Bangladesh, Cambodia, Cuba, El Salvador, Egypt, Iran, Japan, Jordan, Korea, Mexico, Pakistan, Philippines, Spain, Taiwan, and Vietnam	United States	Appreciation for better facilities in the United States did not mitigate the longing for the homeland. Concerns faced included loss of authority in their children’s house and the pressure for housekeeping and childrearing.