Fig. 4.

The 14 cancer hallmarks-based biomarkers. Fourteen major characteristics of tumor cells have been proven so far, which have been divided into acquired hallmarks including sustaining proliferative signaling, evading growth suppressors, resisting cell death, enabling replicative immortality, inducing angiogenesis, activating invasion and metastasis, enabling hallmarks including genome instability and mutation, tumor-promoting inflammation, nonmutational epigenetic reprogramming, and polymorphic microbiomes, and emerging hallmarks including deregulating cellular metabolism, avoiding immune destruction, unlocking phenotypic plasticity, and senescent cells. Each of the cancer hallmarks is involved in numerous essential biomarkers that play vital roles in tumor progression