Table 1.

The list of invasive and non-invasive neuromodulation techniques is constantly expanding.

Neuromodulatory approaches
Invasive	Non-invasive
•Brain-computer interface •Cochlear implant •Deep brain stimulation •Dorsal root ganglion stimulation •Gastric/Intestinal electrical stimulation •Motor cortex stimulation •Peripheral nerve stimulation∗ •Peripheral subcutaneous field stimulation •Retinal stimulation •Responsive neurostimulation •Spinal cord stimulation •Vagus nerve stimulation	•Electroconvulsive therapy •Functional electrical stimulation •Low-intensity focused ultrasound stimulation∗∗ •Non-invasive vagus nerve stimulation (auricular, cervical) •Peripheral nerve stimulation∗ •Transcranial alternating current stimulation •Transcranial direct current stimulation •Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation •Temporal interference stimulation •Transcranial magnetic stimulation •Transcranial ultrasound stimulation∗∗
Possibly neuromodulatory and/or offered within the same program
•Intrathecal drug delivery (e.g. ITB) •Intraventricular drug delivery (e.g. ITB) •Lumboperitoneal shunt∗∗ •Ventriculoperitoneal shunt∗∗ •Intestinal pump-based infusion (e.g. LICG)	•Drug infusion (e.g. ketamine) •Subcutaneous pump-based infusion (e.g. CSAI)

Abbreviations: ∗ includes (invasive and/or non-invasive) stimulation of the nerves: trigeminal, hypoglossal, sacral, pudendal, occipital, phrenic (‘diaphragm pacing’) and tibial (usually percutaneous)’ ∗∗ non-electrical (acoustic waves, intracranial pressure modulation); CSAI: continuous subcutaneous apomorphine infusion; ITB: intrathecal baclofen; LCIG: levodopa-carbidopa intestinal gel.