Study category	No. studies (k)	Total sample size (n)	No. probability estimates		Equality of proportions		Effect size		Heterogeneity
			Sig.	Not Sig.	X2	P	$\overline{r}$	$\overline{Z_r}$± SE	τ2	I2 (%)	H2	Q
All groups
	97	68390	72	25			– 0.017	– 0.022 ± 0.047	0.12	68.72	3.20	276a
Taxonomic Group:					1.920	0.75			0.11	65.16	2.87	247a
Birds	25	8359	16	9			– 0.039	– 0.051 ± 0.071
Fishes	8	31150	6	2			0.043	0.042 ± 0.050
Herpetofauna	10	2618	8	2			– 0.260	– 0.326 ± 0.170
Invertebrates	28	10815	22	6			0.141	0.166 ± 0.104
Mammals	26	15448	20	6			– 0.089	– 0.101 ± 0.086
Sex:					2.560	0.28			0.12	68.24	3.15	267a
Males	20	14814	14	6			– 0.030	0.041 ± 0.117
Females	23	25264	20	3			– 0.114	– 0.128 ± 0.100
Males + Females	54	28312	38	16			0.030	0.029 ± 0.060
Age:					3.260	0.07			0.12	69.06	3.23	275a
Adults	63	59124	37	14			0.004	0.002 ± 0.065
Juveniles	34	9266	15	15			– 0.055	– 0.068 ± 0.062
Migratory Behavior:					0.008	0.93			0.11	66.23	2.96	262a
Migratory	40	22833	29	11			– 0.143	– 0.171 ± 0.065
Non-migratory	57	45557	43	14			0.072	0.082 ± 0.063
Study Design:					0.063	0.801			0.12	68.22	3.15	274a
Natural	62	30113	45	17			– 0.091	– 0.106 ± 0.063
Manipulated	35	38277	27	8			0.115	0.126 ± 0.062
Density Metric:					2.609	0.271			0.10	63.72	2.76	247a
Breeding	22	7859	19	3			– 0.226	– 0.271 ± 0.093
Natal	30	6197	20	10			0.019	0.016 ± 0.071
Population	45	54334	33	12			0.062	0.074 ± 0.074
Density Variable:					1.331	0.249			0.12	68.76	3.2	271a
Discrete	71	20486	50	21			0.014	0.008 ± 0.055
Continuous	26	47904	22	4			– 0.100	– 0.107 ± 0.094
Dispersal Metric:					1.979	0.372			0.12	69.17	3.24	274a
Distance	41	19433	28	13			– 0.004	– 0.002 ± 0.062
Propensity	36	43539	27	9			– 0.019	– 0.021 ± 0.070
Rate	20	5418	17	3			– 0.038	– 0.068 ± 0.148
Temporal Scale:					3.218	0.200			0.11	67.23	3.05	261a
Inter-annual	34	20033	28	6			0.036	0.048 ± 0.090
Intra-annual	51	44807	34	17			– 0.103	– 0.130 ± 0.057
Per trial	12	3550	10	2			0.204	0.232 ± 0.120
Spatial Scale:					0.755	0.385			0.12	60.95	3.22	276a
Between patches	48	55798	38	10			– 0.004	0.005 ± 0.070
Out of patch	49	12592	34	15			– 0.029	– 0.040 ± 0.064
Birds
25	8359		16	9			– 0.039	– 0.051 ± 0.071	0.02	23.36	1.30	30
Sex:					0.35	0.838			0.03	28.99	1.41	30
Males	7	2442	5	2			– 0.103	– 0.128 ± 0.162
Females	6	1038	4	2			– 0.081	– 0.085 ± 0.127
Males + Females	12	4879	7	5			0.020	0.010 ± 0.100
Age:					< 0.001	1			0.03	26.58	1.36	30
Adults	12	5625	8	4			0.012	0.004 ± 0.096
Juveniles	13	2734	8	5			– 0.086	– 0.102 ± 0.105
Migratory Behavior:					0.01	0.932			0.01	8.19	1.09	21
Migratory	15	5081	9	6			– 0.183	– 0.208 ± 0.091
Non-migratory	10	3278	7	3			0.177	0.183 ± 0.064
Study Design:					< 0.001	1			0.03	26.27	1.36	30
Natural	22	8111	14	8			– 0.061	– 0.076 ± 0.075
Manipulated	3	248	2	1			0.124	0.130 ± 0.202
Density Metric:					0.70	0.704			0.01	13.44	1.16	25
Breeding	11	5083	8	3			– 0.107	– 0.118 ± 0.097
Natal	12	2038	4	5			– 0.014	– 0.031 ± 0.116
Population	2	1238	1	1			0.184	0.190 ± 0.142
Density Variable:					0.098	0.755			0.02	25.00	1.33	27
Discrete	20	7424	12	8			0.049	0.047 ± 0.067
Continuous	5	935	4	1			– 0.392	– 0.443 ± 0.135
Dispersal Metric:					5.54	0.060			0.02	22.09	1.28	26
Distance	19	6549	14	5			– 0.110	– 0.28 ± 0.085
Propensity	5	1726	1	4			0.160	0.162 ± 0.046
Rate	1	84	1	0			0.320	0.332
Temporal Scale:					< 0.001	1			0.02	25.38	1.34	30
Inter-annual	18	7976	12	6			0.013	0.009 ± 0.070
Intra-annual	7	383	4	3			– 0.173	0.207 ± 0.174
Per trial	0	0	0	0			–	–
Spatial Scale:					0.31	0.580			0.03	28.25	1.39	30
Between patches	17	6902	12	5			0.045	0.042 ± 0.074
Out of patch	8	1457	4	4			– 0.218	– 0.250 ± 0.136
Fishes
8	31150		6	2			0.043	0.042 ± 0.050	0.02	40.99	1.69	11
Sex:					2.67	0.264			0.01	23.98	1.32	5
Males	2	8738	2	0			0.021	0.021 ± 0.048
Females	2	20106	2	0			– 0.068	– 0.071 ± 0.204
Males + Females	4	2306	2	2			0.108	0.109 ± 0.023
Age:					< 0.001	1			0.01	18.23	1.22	4
Adults	2	26342	2	0			– 0.148	– 0.151 ± 0.124
Juveniles	6	4808	4	2			0.106	0.106 ± 0.017
Migratory Behavior:					0.67	0.414			0.01	34.11	1.52	8
Migratory	4	2306	2	2			0.108	0.109 ± 0.023
Non-migratory	4	28844	4	0			– 0.024	– 0.025 ± 0.090
Study Design:					–	–			–	–	–	–
Natural	0	0	0	0			–	–
Manipulated	8	311150	6	2			0.043	0.042 ± 0.040
Density Metric:					< 0.001	1			0.01	39.18	1.64	9
Breeding	0	0	0	0			–	–
Natal	2	1474	2	0			0.137	0.138 ± 0.028
Population	6	29675	4	2			0.011	0.010 ± 0.061
Density Variable:					0.667	0.414			0.01	34.11	1.52	8
Discrete	4	2306	2	2			− 0.108	− 0.109 ± 0.023
Continuous	4	28844	4	0			− 0.024	− 0.025 ± 0.090
Dispersal Metric:					5.333	0.0695			0.02	45.40	1.83	9
Distance	1	286	0	1			0.109	0.109
Propensity	5	29135	5	0			0.014	0.013 ± 0.079
Rate	2	1729	1	1			0.081	0.081 ± 0.030
Temporal Scale:					< 0.001	1			0.02	43.04	1.76	10
Inter-annual	1	1183	1	0			0.110	0.110
Intra-annual	7	29967	5	2			0.033	0.032 ± 0.056
Per trial	0	0	0	0			–	–
Spatial Scale:					0.667	0.414			0.01	34.11	1.52	8
Between patches	4	28844	4	0			− 0.024	− 0.025 ± 0.090
Out of patch	4	2306	2	2			0.108	0.109 ± 0.234
Herpetofauna
10	2618		8	2			− 0.260	− 0.326 ± 0.170	0.20	73.24	3.74	34a
Sex:					3.750	0.153			0.07	45.11	1.82	13
Males	3	504	3	0			− 0.554	− 0.706 ± 0.276
Females	3	485	3	0			− 0.489	− 0.578 ± 0.212
Males + Females	4	1629	2	2			0.132	0.148 ± 0.173
Age:					0.039	0.843			0.20	73.66	3.80	31b
Adults	8	2425	7	1			− 0.321	− 0.403 ± 0.203
Juveniles	2	193	1	1			− 0.016	− 0.016 ± 0.184
Migratory Behavior:					0.625	0.429			0.09	53.89	2.17	17
Migratory	5	849	5	0			− 0.517	− 0.660 ± 0.223
Non-migratory	5	1769	3	2			− 0.003	0.009 ± 0.157
Study Design:					< 0.001	1			0.01	62.96	2.70	24
Natural	7	2354	6	1			− 0.446	− 0.549 ± 0.163
Manipulated	3	264	2	1			0.173	0.195 ± 0.236
Density Metric:					3.750	0.153			0.07	46.16	1.86	13
Breeding	6	989	6	0			− 0.522	− 0.642 ± 0.158
Natal	2	193	1	1			− 0.016	− 0.016 ± 0.184
Population	2	1436	1	1			0.279	0.313
Density Variable:					0.625	0.429			0.22	71.30	3.48	28a
Discrete	9	1253	8	1			0.009	0.009
Continuous	1	1365	0	1			− 0.290	− 0.363 ± 0.186
Dispersal Metric:					3.213	0.070			0.02	65.10	2.87	12a
Distance	1	1365	0	1			0.009	0.009
Propensity	4	474	3	1			− 0.102	− 0.104 ± 0.090
Rate	5	779	5	0			− 0.440	− 0.571 ± 0.309
Temporal Scale:					1.071	0.585			0.15	68.04	3.13	23a
Inter-annual	2	240	2	0			− 0.606	− 0.706 ± 0.076
Intra-annual	7	2307	5	2			− 0.277	− 0.352 ± 0.184
Per trial	1	71	1	0			0.549	0.617
Spatial Scale:					< 0.001	1			0.14	64.24	2.8	21a
Between patches	6	831	5	1			− 0.400	0.509 ± 0.259
Out of patch	4	1787	3	1			− 0.051	− 0.052 ± 0.087
Invertebrates
28	10815		22	6			0.141	0.166 ± 0.104	0.23	78.9	5.74	130a
Sex:					3.893	0.143			0.24	79.36	4.82	122a
Males	4	494	2	2			0.384	0.478 ± 0.248
Females	7	1522	7	0			0.144	0.185 ± 0.211
Males + Females	17	8799	13	4			0.082	0.085 ± 0.137
Age:					< 0.001	1			0.23	78.59	4.67	124a
Adults	27	10635	21	6			0.163	0.191 ± 0.105
Juveniles	1	180	1	0			− 0.470	− 0.510
Migratory Behavior:					0.318	0.573			0.21	76.34	4.23	108a
Migratory	9	5489	6	3			− 0.083	− 0.105 ± 0.130
Non-migratory	19	5326	16	3			0.246	0.295 ± 0.133
Study Design:					0.520	0.470			0.24	79.48	4.87	128a
Natural	11	5442	8	3			0.073	0.109 ± 0.210
Manipulated	17	5373	14	4			0.184	0.203 ± 0.111
Density Metric:					1.768	0.413			0.22	78.04	4.55	116a
Breeding	5	1787	5	0			− 0.133	− 0.164 ± 0.231
Natal	3	320	2	1			0.198	0.202 ± 0.056
Population	20	8708	15	5			0.200	0.243 ± 0.131
Density Variable:					0.048	0.827			0.24	79.02	4.77	124a
Discrete	20	5712	15	5			0.186	0.215 ± 0.108
Continuous	8	5103	7	1			0.026	0.044 ± 0.254
Dispersal Metric:					0.28	0.868			0.20	75.25	4.04	95a
Distance	6	2424	2	1			0.244	0.276 ± 0.141
Propensity	16	6757	12	4			− 0.022	− 0.023 ± 0.150
Rate	6	1634	5	1			0.470	0.561 ± 0.148
Temporal Scale:					1.075	0.584			0.10	60.00	2.50	60a
Inter-annual	3	1899	3	0			0.772	1.03 ± 0.042
Intra-annual	15	5788	11	4			− 0.035	− 0.057 ± 0.132
Per trial	5	3128	8	2			0.215	0.241 ± 0.130
Spatial Scale:					0.179	0.673			0.23	78.18	4.58	121a
Between patches	9	5936	8	1			0.238	0.293 ± 0.239
Out of patch	19	4879	14	5			0.094	0.106 ± 0.107
Mammals
26	15448		20	6			− 0.089	− 0.101 ± 0.086	0.03	34.90	1.54	42a
Sex:					1.942	0.379			0.05	44.95	1.82	42a
Males	4	2636	2	2			0.049	0.060 ± 0.173
Females	5	2113	4	1			− 0.308	− 0.369 ± 0.198
Males + Females	17	10699	14	3			− 0.057	− 0.060 ± 0.109
Age:					2.612	0.11			0.37	39.53	1.65	42a
Adults	14	14097	13	1			− 0.101	− 0.111 ± 0.122
Juveniles	12	1351	7	5			− 0.074	− 0.090 ± 0.127
Migratory behavior					1.370	0.242			0.04	38.16	1.62	41a
Migratory	7	9108	7	0			− 0.010	0.013 ± 0.145
Non-migratory	19	6340	13	6			− 0.118	− 0.143 ± 0.106
Study Design:					< 0.001	1			0.04	40.28	1.67	42a
Natural	22	14206	17	5			− 0.089	− 0.103 ± 0.101
Manipulated	4	1242	3	1			− 0.087	− 0.090 ± 0.106
Density Metric:					< 0.001	1
Breeding	0	0	0	0			–	–	0.03	33.61	1.51	40a
Natal	11	2172	8	3			− 0.008	− 0.001 ± 0.148
Population	15	13736	12	3			− 0.148	− 0.175 ± 0.103
Density Variable:					0.122	0.727			0.04	40.36	1.68	42a
Discrete	18	3791	13	5			− 0.086	− 0.100 ± 0.114
Continuous	8	11657	7	1			− 0.095	− 0.103 ± 0.125
Dispersal Metric:					3.198	0.202			0.04	38.39	1.62	39a
Distance	14	8809	9	5			0.026	0.042 ± 0.116
Propensity	6	5447	6	0			− 0.136	− 0.142 ± 0.098
Rate	6	1192	5	1			− 0.309	− 0.394 ± 0.208
Temporal Scale:					5.720	0.057			0.04	42.10	1.73	41a
Inter-annual	10	8735	10	0			− 0.024	0.031 ± 0.198
Intra-annual	15	6362	9	6			− 0.122	− 0.138 ± 0.077
Per trial	1	351	1	0			− 0.242	− 0.247
Spatial Scale:					< 0.001	1			0.03	35.13	1.54	41a
Between patches	12	13285	9	3			− 0.049	− 0.037 ± 0.090
Out of patch	14	2163	11	3			− 0.123	− 0.156 ± 0.142

*P significant at$\alpha$= 0.05; **P significant at$\alpha$= 0.01

^aQ significant at$\alpha$= 0.05