Table 3.

Economic analyses of IPS.

Primary author (Year) # Reference	Design	Location	Clients served	N	Months of follow‐up	IPS fidelity	Analytic approach	Total costs	Findings
Clark (1998) 98	Day treatment conversion	US (New Hampshire)	SMI	184	12	Good	Cost offset	IPS < day treatment	After shifting to IPS, employment rates increased from 33% to 56% at Site 1 and from 9% to 45% at Site 2. Mental health center costs reduced by 29% at the two study sites.
Clark (1998) 89	RCT	US (New Hampshire)	SMI	143	18	Good	Cost–benefit	IPS = Control	Mean per‐client employment program costs ($5636 for IPS and $5532 for controls) and mental health treatment costs ($14,429 for IPS and $16,712 for controls) were similar.
Dixon (2002) 90	RCT	US (Washington, DC)	SMI	150	18	Good	CEA	IPS > Control	Overall costs for IPS 16% higher: Mean per‐client costs employment program costs ($6059 for IPS and $5723 for controls) and mental health treatment costs ($23,018 for IPS and $19,396 for controls).
Stroupe (2022) 104	Multisite RCT	US (Veterans Affairs)	Veterans with PTSD	541	18	Good	CEA	IPS > Control	Mean per‐client annual health care costs $4000 more for IPS than control group
Heslin (2011) 105	RCT	UK	SMI	219	24	Poor	CEA	IPS < Control	Overall costs for IPS 20% lower: Mean per‐client costs for IPS were £300 and mean per‐client mental health service costs were £9571 for IPS and £11,932 for controls.
Shi (2012) 106	RCT	Canada	SMI	149	12	Good	CEA	IPS < Control	IPS was cost‐effective compared to usual services, although baseline differences in inpatient days attenuated finding.
Knapp (2013) 107	Six‐nation RCT	Europe	SMI	312	12	Fair–good	CEA	IPS < Control	IPS had better health outcomes at lower cost (fewer days of hospitalization).
Hoffmann (2014) 85	RCT	Switzerland	SMI	100	60	Good	Cost–benefit	IPS = Control	Higher return on investment for IPS ($0.54 for IPS vs $0.18 for control).
Yamaguchi (2017) 108	RCT	Japan	SMI	111	12	Fair	CEA	IPS < Control	IPS intervention was modified IPS and included cognitive remediation
Christensen (2021) 109	Multisite RCT	Denmark	SMI	720	18	Fair–good	Cost–utility	IPS < Control	Overall costs for IPS 41% lower: Mean per‐client total costs for IPS were €13,582 for IPS and €23,125 for controls. Mean per‐client costs for IPS were €914.

Abbreviations: CEA, cost‐effectiveness analysis; IPS, Individual Placement and Support; PTSD, posttraumatic stress disorder; RCT, randomized controlled trial; SMI, serious mental illness.