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Schematic illustration of charge-reversing nanoparticles (NPs) disseminating throughout biofilms. A reduced pH gradient across the biofilm catalyzes the hydrolysis (dashed red lines) of charge-converting polymers, thereby creating a positively-charged NP surface that can penetrate the biofilm matrix. However, permanently negative NP surfaces have negligible biofilm penetration due to electrostatic repulsion by the biofilm matrix.
