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. 2024 May 7;13(10):796. doi: 10.3390/cells13100796

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© 2024 by the authors.

Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Multifunctional effects of PAI-1 on desmoplasia formation in CCA. (A) Cholangiocarcinoma (CCA) presents as intrahepatic (iCCA) or extrahepatic as perihilar (pCCA) or distal (dCCA) disease. Tumors spread as mass-forming, intraductal growing, and periductal-infiltating types. (B) PAI-1 secreted by CCA tumors (intrahepatic [iCCA] illustrated here) activates and recruits stromal cells, enriching the TME with CAFs and TAMs which then further elevate local PAI-1 concentration and, through extensive ECM deposition, support the increasing desmoplastic nature of the CCA TME. (Created by BioRender.com).