Table 6.

A comprehensive overview of significant recent studies (conducted between 2023 and 2024) investigating various aspects of prostate cancer (PCa).

Title	Aim	Methods	Results	Reference
Alterations of plasma exosomal proteins and metabolites in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC) progression	Characterizing the proteomic and metabolomic profiles of exosomes to assess their diagnostic potential in prostate cancer (PCa), particularly CRPC. Investigating the functional roles of specific exosome biomarkers in CRPC progression.	Conducted integrated proteomics and metabolomics analysis of plasma-derived exosomes from tumor-free controls (TFC), PCa, and CRPC patients.	1. Leucine-rich alpha2-glycoprotein 1 (LRG1) and inter-alpha-trypsin inhibitor heavy chain H3 (ITIH3) identified as potential predictive markers for CRPC. 2. Differential metabolite expression in exosomes distinguished PCa from TFC and CRPC. 3. LRG1 protein significantly upregulated in advanced prostate cancer. 4. Exosomes overexpressing LRG1 derived from PCa cells notably enhanced angiogenesis.	[124]
Prediction of clinically significant prostate cancer through urine metabolomic signatures: A large-scale validated study	Developing urine tests to predict clinically significant PC (sPC) in men at risk.	Analyzed urine samples from 928 men, including 660 PC patients and 268 benign subjects, using GC/Q-TOF MS metabolomic profiling to construct four predictive models.	1. Models I, II, III, and GS, involving 26, 24, 26, and 22 metabolites, respectively, augmented by five clinical risk factors, significantly improved AUCs, aiding in sPC prediction. 2. The combined urine test of metabolic markers and clinical factors effectively predicted sPC, guiding biopsy necessity for men with an elevated PC risk.	[125]
Radiotherapy induces innate immune responses in patients treated for prostate cancers	Investigating the innate immune responses induced by radiotherapy in patients with prostate cancer.	Investigated systemic clinical responses post prostate stereotactic body radiotherapy using proteomic and metabolomic analyses.	1. Observed increased DNA damage response and persistent innate immune signaling in patients after prostate stereotactic body radiotherapy. 2. Observed differential immune responses and metabolite profiles between patients in remission and those experiencing disease progression post radiotherapy.	[126]
Metabolomic profiles of intact tissues reflect clinically relevant prostate cancer subtypes	For improved treatment stratification, reliable approaches are needed to faithfully differentiate between high- and low-risk tumors and to predict therapy response at diagnosis.	Applied a metabolomic approach based on HR-MAS NMR to analyze intact biopsy samples obtained from patients treated by prostatectomy, combined with advanced statistical methods to identify metabolomic profiles reflecting tumor subtypes based on Ki67 and PSA immunoreactivity.	Identified distinct metabolite patterns reflecting clinically relevant prostate cancer subtypes based on Ki67 and PSA immunoreactivity, including alterations in choline, phosphocholine/glycerophosphocholine, glycine, creatine, glutamate/glutamine, taurine, and lactate.	[127]
Integrating intracellular and extracellular proteomic profiling for in-depth investigations of cellular communication in a model of prostate cancer	Exploring cellular communication in prostate cancer through integrated intracellular and extracellular proteomic profiling.	Employed cellular-based proteomics to comprehensively profile both intracellular and extracellular proteomes in a prostate cancer model, enabling investigations into cellular communication dynamics.	1. Revealed over 8000 proteins through intracellular and extracellular proteomic profiling, shedding light on cellular communication dynamics in prostate cancer’s development and progression. 2. Demonstrated the utility of integrated intracellular and extracellular proteomic profiling for investigating the cellular communication dynamics in prostate cancer.	[128]
Serum organic acid metabolites as potential biomarkers for prostatitis, benign prostatic hyperplasia, and prostate cancer	Identifying serum organic acid metabolites as potential biomarkers for distinguishing prostatitis, benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH), and prostate cancer (PCa).	Employed untargeted and targeted LC-MS to identify and verify serum organic acid metabolites in patients with prostatitis, BPH, and PCa, enabling the development of diagnostic models for disease differentiation.	1. Identified specific serum organic acid metabolites with good sensitivity and specificity for differentiating prostatitis, BPH, and PCa, including phenylacetic acid, pyroglutamic acid, citric acid, malic acid, D-glucuronic acid, and others. 2. Highlighted the potential of serum organic acid metabolites as biomarkers for differentiating between prostatitis, BPH, and PCa, offering diagnostic insights into these conditions.	[129]
Integrative analysis of transcriptomic and metabolomic profiles reveals enhanced arginine metabolism in androgen-independent prostate cancer cells	Investigating enhanced arginine metabolism in androgen-independent prostate cancer cells through integrative analysis of transcriptomic and metabolomic profiles.	Through RNA sequencing and LC-MS/MS analysis, integrating transcriptomic and metabolomic data for a comprehensive understanding.	1. Identified enhanced arginine metabolism in androgen-independent prostate cancer cells, with the arginine and proline metabolism pathway commonly altered at both transcriptional and metabolic levels, suggesting its substantial association with CRPC. 2. Emphasized the substantial association between the arginine and the proline metabolism pathway and CRPC, underlining the importance of targeting dysregulated metabolites and differentially expressed genes for clinical management.	[130]
Relationship between 4-Hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) as systemic biomarker of lipid peroxidation and metabolomic profiling of patients with prostate cancer	Investigating the association between 4-Hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) as a systemic biomarker of lipid peroxidation and metabolomic profiling in patients with prostate cancer.	Utilizing immunohistochemistry, plasma sample analysis, and LC-ESI-QTOF-MS and GC-EI-Q-MS metabolomic techniques.	1. Revealed the absence of 4-HNE-protein adducts in prostate carcinoma tissue but increased 4-HNE-protein levels in the plasma of these patients, along with altered metabolomic profiles indicating a positive association of different long-chain and medium-chain fatty acids with the presence of prostate cancer and an affected unsaturated fatty acids biosynthesis pathway. 2. Revealed that altered lipid metabolism and the unsaturated fatty acids biosynthesis pathway are associated with increased 4-HNE plasma protein adducts in prostate cancer patients.	[131]