Table 5.

A list of the research on the antimicrobial activity of different Dunaliella spp., including unidentified ones.

Species	Extract or Sample	Test Microorganism	Antimicrobial Activity—MIC, MBC, IZ, etc.	Test Methods	Reference
Dunaliella sp.	EtOAc and MeOH extracts from a hexane extract	Biofilm-forming strains causing clinical infections: S. aureus, CNS, S. epidermidis, E. coli, K. pneumonia, E. cloacae and P. aeruginosa; fungi (C. albicans and C. parapsilosis resistant to fluconasole)	No antibacterial and biofilm-inhibiting effect activity on the test strains, which included strains with different resistance profiles towards clinical treatments, such as S. aureus, E. coli and C. parapsilosis	BMD, biofilm formation assay	[174]
Dunaliella sp. from Moroccan coastlines	EtOH extract	E. coli, S. aureus and P. aeruginosa; fungi—C. albicans and A. niger	Moderately inhibited E. coli, S. aureus and C. albicans with MIC > 5 mg/mL, and P. aeruginosa with MIC 4.3 mg/mL but not A. niger at 5 mg/mL	BMD	[61]
Dunaliela sp. from the Aegean Sea	EtOH extracts	Ten pathogens—E. faecalis, S. aureus and MRSA; E. coli, K. pneumoniae, S. flexneri and V. cholera; fungi—A. fumigatus, C. albicans and C. neoformans; the fouling bacteria A. hydrophila, A. salmonicida, A. borkumensis, Alcanivorax sp., Allivibrio salmonicida, E. litoralis, P. donghaensis, Pseudoalteromonas sp., P. mendocina and V. furnissii	No effect	AWDM (1 mg/disc), BMD	[177]
D. tertiolecta	Aqueous, sodium acetate and CHCl3-MeOH extracts	Staphylococcus spp. isolates causing goat (19 strains) and bovine (16 strains) mastitis	MIC50 = 3–25 μg/mL, MICs = 25 μg/mL (aqueous extract), >100 μg/mL (the rest against bovine mastitis strains) MICs = 50, 100 and >100 μg/mL μg/mL (goat mastitis strains)	BMD	[151]
D. tertiolecta	MeOH extract	114 bacterial and 11 fungal strains from ear swabs from patients with external otitis using for over one year: Staphylococcus spp. (28.8%) and P. aeruginosa (24.8%). Many of the strains, except Klebsiella spp., could form biofilms. Only three S. aureus strains and 11 CNS showed resistance to methicillin	MIC50 and the MIC ranges against S. aureus = 5.6 × 109 and 2.8 × 109–1.1 × 1010 algae cells/mL, P. aeruginosa = 2.8 × 109 and 1.4 × 109–5.6 × 109 algae cells/mL, Enterobacteriaceae (strains of E. coli and Klebsiella spp.,) = 2.2 × 1010 and 1.1 × 1010–2.2 × 1010 algae cells/mL	BMD (MIC measured as algae cells/mL)	[178]
D. tertiolecta	Hexane extract and DCM and MeOH fractions from it	E. coli, P. aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, B. subtilis, S. aureus and M. luteus	Active only against B. subtilis and S. aureus with IZs ranging from 8.9 to 11.6 mm	Agar diffusion method (the Oxford cup method)	[181]
D. parva	dH2O extracts made with freezing and thawing	Four test strains of opportunistic bacteria (E. coli, K. ozaenae, P. aeruginosa and S. aureus)	<20% growth inhibition; peloid-containing extracts of cells had a pronounced antibacterial effect against opportunistic bacteria	BMD, photometric method	[56]
Dunaliella sp.	Total carotenoid extract	E. coli, Salmonella sp., P. aeruginosa, B. cereus, Klebsiella sp.; Mice inoculated with H. pylori	E. coli and Salmonella sp.: no activity up to 100 mg/mL; P. aeruginosa: probiotic activity at 100 mg/mL only; B. cereus: inhibition at 6.25 mg/mL; Klebsiella sp.: inhibition at 25 mg/mL. From three microalgal species, only Dunaliella sp. healed the stomach in 14 days, highest ability to promote gastric healing due to antioxidant and antimicrobial effect	DDM, in vivo gastritis studies on model mice	[173]
D. tertiolecta	Aqueous and acidified MeOH extract	V. campbellii, Vibrio-challenged L. vannamei shrimp cultures	12–13% growth inhibition (the aqueous extract at 78–313 μg/mL. Exact MIC not determined due to variation in the inhibition at different concentrations. No clear anti-Vibrio activity for the MeOH extract and in the in vivo test when the alga was used as green-water cultures	BMD, in vivo shrimp challenge assay	[84]
D. tertiolecta	Biomass as a feed	Artemia (brine shrimp) challenged with Vibrio	Full protection against vibriosis in terms of survival and viable parameters. This effect could be due to the immune-stimulating effect or antibacterial compounds	In vivo challenge test after daily feeding	[122]