Table 2.

List of mosquito- and midge-borne viral agents of neuroinflammation.

Family	Genus	Species	Common Names or Subspecies/ Acronym(s)	Genome	Host-Source, Vector, Transmission	Geographic Distribution	NS Pathology	Reference
		(Sub)Species complex/ Acronym(s)
Flaviviridae	Orthoflavivirus	Orthoflavivirus aroaense	Bussuquara virus/ BSQV	ssRNA(+)	Hs: Non-human primates, rodents, wild birds V: Mosquitoes (Culex spp.) T: With mosquito bites	Brazil (Pará state), Panama	Encephalitis	[110,129]
			Iguape virus/ IGUV	ssRNA(+)	Hs: Wild birds V: Mosquitoes (Aedes spp.) T: With mosquito bites	Brazil (Sao Paulo state)	Encephalitis	[109,110,194]
		Orthoflavivirus cacipacoreense	Cacipacoré virus/ CPCV	ssRNA(+)	Hs: Wild birds (Formicarius analis) V: Mosquitoes (Culex spp.) T: With mosquito bites	Brazil (Pará and Rondônia states), Amazon region	Encephalitis	[129]
		Orthoflavivirus denguei	Dengue virus/ DENV	ssRNA(+)	Hs: Non-human primates (macaques—Macaca spp.; Surilis—Presbytis spp.) V: Mosquitoes (Aedes aegypti, Aedes albopictus, Aedes scutellaris, Aedes polynesiensis; Aedes furcifer, Aedes vittatus, Aedes tailori, Aedes luteocephalus—equatorial parts of Africa) T: With mosquito bites; Human-to-human contact (breastfeeding); Congenital infection.	Focally worldwide spread; High treat: Africa (Sudan, Egypt, Eritrea, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Tanzania, Mauritius, Mozambique, Seychelles, Angola, Cameroon, Burkina Faso, Côte d’Ivoire, Senegal); the Caribbean basin, Central America, South America, southeastern Asia, Oceania	Encephalitis, meningitis, meningoencephalitis, encephalomyelitis, acute cerebellitis, polyneuritis, encephalopathy, Parkinsonian symptoms	[79,195,196,197,198,199,200,201,202]
		Orthoflavivirus flavi	Yellow fever virus/ YFV	ssRNA(+)	Hs: Non-human primates V: Mosquitoes (Aedes spp., Haemagogus spp., Sabethes spp.); ticks (Amblyomma variegatum)—in Africa, extremely rare T: With mosquito bites; With tick bites.	Endemic regions: West Africa (Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Côte d’Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gambia, Ghana, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Nigeria, Sao Tome and Principe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Togo); Central Africa (Angola, Burundi, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Gabon, Rwanda); East Africa (Ethiopia, Kenya, Somalia, Sudan, Tanzania, Uganda); Panama; South America (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, French Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Trinidad and Tobago, Venezuela)	Encephalitis, YFV vaccine-associated encephalitis, ADEM, Guillain–Barré syndrome, meningitis, meningoencephalitis	[112,113,114,115,116,117,118]
		Orthoflavivirus ilheusense	Ilhéus virus/ ILHV	ssRNA(+)	Hs: Wild birds V: Mosquitoes (Aedes spp., Psorophora spp.) T: With mosquito bites	Brazil (Pará and São Paulo states, Pantanal region)	Encephalitis	[129]
			Rocio virus/ ROCV	ssRNA(+)	Hs: Rufous-collared sparrow (Zonotrichia capensis) V: Mosquitoes (Ochleratus spp., Psorofora ferox; specific antibodies: double-collared seedeater (Sporophila caerulescen); creamy-bellied thrush (Turdus amaurochalinus); equines; water buffalo (Bubalus bubalis); marsupials T: With mosquito bites	Southeast Brazil (Sao Paulo state—endemic region); Other regions of virus circulation: Goiás state, Rio de Janeiro state, Mato Grosso do Sul state, Paraíba state, Mato Grosso state	Encephalitis, meningoencephalitis, meningitis	[119,133,203]
		Orthoflavivirus japonicum	Japanese encephalitis virus/ JEV	ssRNA(+)	Hs: Wild aquatic birds, domestic birds, domestic pigs V: Mosquitoes (Main vectors—Culex tritaeniorhynchus, Culex vishnui, Culex gelidus) T: With mosquito bites	Focally worldwide spread; Asia–Pacific region, Southeast Asia, Australia	Encephalitis, meningoencephalitis, meningitis	[120,204,205,206,207,208]
		Orthoflavivirus louisense	St. Louis encephalitis virus/ SLEV	ssRNA(+)	Hs: Sylvatic, peridomestic, and urban birds (sparrows—Passer sp.; pigeons—Columba sp.; blue jay—Cyanocitta cristata; robins—Turdus sp.) V: Mosquitoes (Culex tarsalis, Culex pipiens, Culex quinquefasciatus) T: With mosquito bites	United States (Eastern and Central states)	Encephalitis, meningoencephalitis, meningitis	[121,122,123,124]
		Orthoflavivirus murrayense	Murray Valley encephalitis virus/ MVEV	ssRNA(+)	Hs: Wild animals: marsupials (kangaroos; agile wallabies—Notamacropus agilis); rabbits (Leporidae); rodents; wild birds—Galahs (Cacatuidae); water birds (rufous night heron—Nycticorax caledonicus; Pacific black duck—Anas superciliosa); domestic animals and birds V: Mosquitoes (Culex annulirostris, Culex sitiens) T: With mosquito bites	Australia (Western Australia, Northern Territory, New South Wales, Victoria); Papua New Guinea; Indonesia; Canada (Alberta)—imported infection	Encephalitis	[125,126,127,128]
		Orthoflavivirus nilense	West Nile virus/ WNV	ssRNA(+)	Hs: Wild birds, domestic animals (horses, sheep), alligators, lake frog (Rana ridibunda—competent reservoir (Russia)) V: Mosquitoed (Culex spp.) T: With mosquito bites; Human-to-human transmission (organ transplantation, blood transfusion, placental route)	Endemic region: East Africa (Uganda) Many cases: North America, Brazil, Middle East, Europe, Asia, Regions of Africa Worldwide spread	Meningitis, encephalitis, poliomyelitis	[129,130,131,132,209,210]
			Kunjin virus/ KUNV	ssRNA(+)	Hs: Wild birds, domestic animals (horses, sheep), alligators V: Mosquitoes (Culex annulirostris) T: With mosquito bites	Australia (tropical north regions), Oceania	Encephalitis	[133,134]
		Orthoflavivirus usutuense	Usutu virus/ USUV	ssRNA(+)	Hs: Wild passerine birds, insectivorous microbats (Pipistrellus sp.), equines, rodents, shrews V: Mosquitoes (Culex spp., Aedes spp., Mansonia spp., Anopheles spp.) T: With mosquito bites	Africa (South Africa, Central African Republic, Senegal, Côte d’Ivoire, Nigeria, Uganda, Burkina Faso, Tunisia, Morocco); Europe (introductions: France, Germany, Italy, Austria, Serbia)	Encephalitis, meningoencephalitis	[135,136,137,138]
		Orthoflavivirus zikaense	Zika virus/ ZIKV	ssRNA(+)	Hs: Non-human primates V: Mosquitoes (Aedes spp.) T: With mosquito bites; Human-to-human transmission (organ transplantation, blood transfusion, placental route); Contact with infected fomites.	Brazil, Central and North America	Guillain–Barré syndrome, fetal microcephaly, myelitis, meningoencephalitis	[139,140,141,211]
Peribunyaviridae	Orthobunyavirus	Orthobunyavirus bunyamweraense	Bunyamwera virus/ BUNV	ssRNA(−)	Hs: Wild waterfowls V: Mosquitoes (Aedes circumluteolus); hard ticks (Amblyomma dubitatum, Amblyomma sculptum)—presumably T: With mosquito bites; With tick bites—presumably	Uganda, Tanzania, Mozambique, Nigeria, Guinea, South Africa (KwaZulu-Natal province), Democratic Republic of Congo, Botswana, Namibia (Caprivi region), Senegal, Ivory Cost, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Kenya, Madagascar; Argentina, Brazil (Minas Gerais (ticks))	Encephalitis, meningitis	[144,145,146]
			Germiston virus/ GERV	ssRNA(−)	Hs: Wild animals (virus isolation); domestic animals (antibody detection) V: Mosquitoes (Culex theileri, Culex rubinotus) T: With mosquito bites; Direct contact with infected tissue and fomites	Africa; South Africa region	Encephalitis, meningoencephalitis (both sporadic cases; laboratory work infection); mental confusion	[79,143,144,147]
			Xingu virus/ XINV	ssRNA(−)	Hs: Not identified V: Mosquitoes T: With mosquito bites—presumably	South America (Brazil)	Encephalitis/meningoencephalitis (both sporadic cases)	[79,148]
		Orthobunyavirus cacheense	Cache Valley virus/ CVV	ssRNA(−)	Hs: Domestic ruminants (equines, cattle); deer V: Mosquitoes (Culex spp.) T: With mosquito bites	US (Utah, North Carolina, Missouri, Wisconsin, New York)	Encephalitis, meningoencephalitis, meningitis	[149,150,151,152]
		Cristoli virus 1	–	ssRNA(−)	Hs: Not identified V: Mosquito—presumably T: With mosquito bites—presumably	France (Île-de-France region, including Paris)	Encephalitis	[153]
		Orthobunyavirus encephalitidis	California encephalitis virus/ CEV	ssRNA(−)	Hs: Equines V: Mosquitoes T: With mosquito bites	US (California)	Encephalitis	[79,212]
		Orthobunyavirus guaroaense	Guaroa virus/ GROV	ssRNA(−)	Hs: Mosquitoes (Anopheles (Kerteszia) neivai) V: Mosquitoes—presumably T: With mosquito bites—presumably	Brazil, Colombia, Panama, Bolivia	Paresis	[143,169]
		Orthobunyavirus ileshaense	Ilesha virus/ ILEV	ssRNA(−)	Hs: – V: Mosquitoes (Anopheles gambiae) T: With mosquito bites	Cameroon, Central African Republic, Nigeria, Senegal, Uganda; Madagascar (virus isolation from infected persons); Ghana and Niger (antibody from infected persons)	Meningoencephalitis	[144,172]
		Orthobunyavirus jamestownense	Jamestown Canyon virus/ JCV	ssRNA(−)	Hs: White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), moose (Alces alces), elk (Cervus elaphus), bison (Bison bison) V: Mosquitoes (Culiseta inornata, Aedes spp., Anopheles spp.) T: With mosquito bites	US (Minnesota, Wisconsin); Canada (British Columbia, Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia)	Encephalitis, meningoencephalitis, meningitis	[79,185,186,213,214]
			Inkoo virus/ INKV	ssRNA(−)	Hs: Wild birds V: Mosquitoes (Aedes spp.) T: With mosquito bites	Finland, Sweden, Norway, Russia	Asthenoneurologic disturbances, microfocal neurologic symptoms, encephalitis	[52,79,156,157,158,159]
		Orthobunyavirus kernense	Main Drain virus/ MDV	ssRNA(−)	Hs: Horses, wild birds, black-tailed jackrabbit (Lepus californicus) V: Mosquitoes (Culicidae)—occasional vector; biting midges (Ceratopogonidae, Culicoides variipennis) T: With mosquito or midge bites	US (California)	Unspecified CNS disease	[66,143]
		Orthobunyavirus keystoneense	Keystone virus/ KEYV	ssRNA(−)	Hs: Squirrels, raccoons, whitetail deer (Odocoileus virginianus) V: Mosquitoes (Aedes spp.) T: With mosquito bites	US (Florida, coastal regions of the Chesapeake Bay)	Encephalitis, meningitis	[191,215]
		Orthobunyavirus khatangaense	Snowshoe hare virus/ SSHV	ssRNA(−)	Hs: Hares, squirrels V: Mosquitoes (Aedes spp.) T: With mosquito bites	US, Canada	Meningoencephalitis, encephalitis, meningitis	[79,216,217,218,219]
			Khatanga virus; Chatanga virus/ KHATV	ssRNA(−)	Hs: Wild sylvatic animals; domestic animals—presumably V: Mosquitoes (Aedes spp., Culiseta spp., Culex spp., Anopheles spp.) T: With mosquito bites	Russia (European part, western, middle and northeastern Siberia)	Encephalitis	[79,154,155]
		Orthobunyavirus lacrosseense	La Crosse virus/ LACV	ssRNA(−)	Hs: Chipmunks, squirrels V: Mosquitoes (Aedes spp.) T: With mosquito bites	US (Ohio, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, North Carolina, Tennessee, West Virginia, Georgia, Virginia, Kentucky, Rhode Island)	Encephalitis	[79,134,139,140]
		Orthobunyavirus oropoucheense	Oropouche virus/ OROV	ssRNA(−)	Hs: Pale-throated sloths, non-human primates V: Mosquitoes (Culex spp., Aedes spp.); biting midges (Culicoides) T: With mosquito bites	Brazil, Panama, Peru, Trinidad and Tobago	Meningitis	[167,168,171]
		Orthobunyavirus shuniense	Shuni virus/ SHUV	ssRNA(−)	Hs: Horses, domestic cattle V: Mosquitoes (Culex theileri); Cullicoides midges T: With mosquito and midge bites	South Africa (Gauteng province), Israel, Nigeria	Encephalitis, meningitis	[66,171]
		Orthobunyavirus tahynaense	Ťahyňa virus/ TAHV	ssRNA(−)	Hs: Small wild mammals V: Mosquitoes (Culex spp., Aedes spp.) T: With mosquito bites	Central Europe; China (Xinjiang, Qinghai, Inner Mongolia)	Meningitis, meningoencephalitis, encephalomyelitis, encephalitis	[79,160,161,162,163,164,165,166]
		Orthobunyavirus tensawense	Tensaw virus/ TENV	ssRNA(−)	Hs: Sylvatic rodents, foxes, raccoons, dogs, cows V: Mosquitoes (Aedes vexans, Anopheles crucians, Coquillettidia perturbans, Culex salinarius, Uranotaenia sapphirina) T: With mosquito bites—presumably; Congenital infection.	US (Alabama, Florida)	Rabies-like symptoms, encephalitis, micro-/macrocephaly	[143,220]
		Orthobunyavirus umbreense	Umbre virus/ UMBV	ssRNA(−)	Hs: Not identified V: Mosquitoes (Culex spp.) T: With mosquito bites—presumably	India, Australia (Queensland—Umbre-related viruses); Malaysia (Umbre-related domestic avian pathogenic virus); France—presumably	Lethal encephalitis	[174]
		Orthobunyavirus wyeomyiae	Tucunduba virus/ TUCV	ssRNA(−)	Hs: – V: Mosquitoes (Culex spp., Wyeomia spp., Sabethes spp., Psorophora spp., Limatus spp., Trichoprosopon spp.) T: With mosquito bites	Brazil	Meningoencephalitis	[170]
		Ntwetwe virus 1	Ntwetwe virus 1/ NTWV 1	ssRNA(−)	Hs: – V: Mosquitoes (Anopheles spp.) T: –	Uganda	Fatal encephalopathy, encephalitis	[143,173]
Phenuiviridae	Phlebovirus	Phlebovirus riftense	Rift Valley Fever virus/ RVFV	ssRNA(+/−)	Hs: Wild and domestic animals V: Mosquitoes (Culex spp.) T: With mosquito bites; Direct contact with contaminated biological fluids.	Kenya, Tanzania, South Africa, Sudan, Egypt, Madagascar, Somalia, Mauritania, Botswana, Namibia	Meningoencephalitis, encephalitis	[139,175]
		Phlebovirus toscanaense	Toscana virus/ TOSV	ssRNA(+/−)	Hs: – V: Sandflies (Phlebotomus perniciosus, Phlebotomus perfiliewi) T: With sandfly bites	Italy, Spain, Slovenia, Turkey, Portugal, Greece, Cyprus, Southern France, the Balkans, the Black Sea coast, Iraq, Iran, Pakistan, Afghanistan, India	Meningitis, meningoencephalitis	[176,177,178]
Rhabdoviridae	Vesiculovirus	Vesiculovirus chandipura	Chandipura virus/ CHPV	ssRNA(−)	Hs: Pigs, buffalo, cattle V: Mosquitoes (Phlebotomus spp.) T: With mosquito bites	India, Bhutan, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Nigeria, Senegal	Encephalitis	[179]
Sedoreoviridae	Orbivirus	Orungo virus	Orungo virus/ ORUV	dsRNA	Hs: – V: Mosquito (Aedes spp., Culex spp., Anopheles spp.) T: With mosquito bites	Regions of sub-Saharan Africa	Encephalitis	[88]
	Seadornavirus	Banna virus	Banna virus/ BAV	dsRNA	Hs: Domestic pigs, cattle V: Mosquitoes (Culex tritaeniorhynchus, Culex pipiens pallens, Culex annulus, Culex pseudovishnui, Culex modestus, Anopheles sinensis, Aedes vagus, Aedes albopictus, Aedes vexans, Aedes dorsalis); Midges (Culicoides sp.) T: With mosquito bites	Indonesia, China, Vietnam	Encephalitis	[180,221,222]
Togaviridae	Alphavirus	Chikungunya virus	Chikungunya virus/ CHIKV	ssRNA(+)	V: Mosquitoes (Aedes spp.) T: With mosquito bites	Africa, Southeastern Asia, Europe (imported infection), North America	Myelitis, encephalitis	[129,139,223]
		Eastern equine encephalitis virus	Eastern equine encephalitis virus North American/ EEEV-NA	ssRNA(+)	Hs: Birds, mammals V: Mosquitoes (Aedes spp., Culex spp., Anopheles spp.) T: With mosquito bites	North America (Massachusetts, Michigan, Florida, Georgia, North Carolina), the Caribbean region	Encephalitis	[224,225,226]
		Madariaga virus	Madariaga virus; Eastern equine encephalitis virus South American/ MADV; EEEV-SA	ssRNA(+)	Hs: Birds, mammals V: Mosquitoes (Aedes spp., Culex spp., Anopheles spp.) T: With mosquito bites	South America (Panama, Venezuela), Haiti	Encephalitis, encephalomyelitis	[181,182,183,184]
		Mayaro virus	Mayaro virus/ MAYV	ssRNA(+)	Hs: Non-human primates, migratory birds V: Mosquitoes (Haemagogus spp.—particularly Haemagogus janthinomys); Culex spp., Mansonia spp., Aedes spp., Psorophora spp., Sabethes spp. T: With mosquito bites	Europe (Germany, France, Netherlands, Switzerland—imported infection); United states (isolated in non-human primates, migratory birds); Mexico, Trinidad and Tobago, Brazil, Surinam, French Guiana, Venezuela, Haiti, Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Colombia (isolated from mosquitoes)	Encephalopathy	[129,227,228]
		Middelburg virus	Middelburg virus/ MIDV	ssRNA(+)	Hs: Equines, mice, sheep V: Mosquitoes (Aedes spp.) T: With mosquito bites	South Africa, Zimbabwe	Meningo-encephalitis	[187,188]
		Ross River virus	Ross River virus/ RRV	ssRNA(+)	Hs: Mammals, birds V: Mosquitoes (Culex spp.) T: With mosquito bites	Australia, Papua New Guinea	Meningitis (rare cases); encephalitis (rare cases)	[189,190]
		Sindbis virus	Sindbis virus/ SINV	ssRNA(+)	Hs: Wild birds (Corvus corone sardonius—hooded crow); rodents; domestic animals V: Mosquitoes (Culex spp., Anopheles spp., Coquillettidia spp., Aedes spp., Ocheleratus spp.); Gamasidae ticks (Ornithonyssus bacoti), Ixodidae ticks (Hyalomma marginatum) T: With arthropod-vector bites	Africa (endemic regions—Egypt, South Africa, Uganda, Central African Republic, Sudan, Nigeria, and Zimbabwe), Europe (Germany, Sweden, Finland, Italy, Slovakia), Russia, the Middle East, the Philippines, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Israel, India, China, Malaysia, Australia (north regions), New Zealand	Meningitis—presumably	[66,79,192,229,230]
		Tonate virus	Tonate virus; Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus IIIB/ TONV; VEEV-IIIB	ssRNA(+)	Hs: Wild birds (Psarocolius decumanus—crested oropendola) V: Mosquitoes (Culex portesi) T: With mosquito bites	North America, South America (Surinam, French Guiana), Central America	Encephalitis	[192,193]
		Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus	Venezuelan equine encephalitis virus/ VEEV	ssRNA(+)	Hs: Wild rodents (cotton mouse—Peromyscus gossypinus; hispid cotton rat—Sigmodon hispidus; spiny rats—Proechimys spp.; Oryzomys spp., Zigodontomys spp., Heteromys spp.), equines, canids, pigs, wild birds, bats V: Mosquitoes (Culex spp., Mansonia spp., Anopheles spp., Aedes spp., Psorophora spp., Sabethes spp., Haemagogus spp., Deinocerites spp.); Ochlerotatus taeniorhynchus T: With mosquito bites	Costa Rica, Venezuela, Colombia, Belize, Peru, Ecuador, British Guyana, Guatemala, Argentina, Panama, Trinidad, Honduras, El Salvador, Nicaragua, Mexico; United States (Texas, Florida)	Encephalitis, meningitis	[15,52,66,192,231,232,233]
		Western equine encephalitis virus	Western equine encephalitis virus/ WEEV	ssRNA(+)	Hs: Wild birds (passerine); wild rodents, horses V: Mosquitoes (Culex tarsalis; Aedes spp.); Ochlerotatus melanimon (California), Aedes dorsalis (Utah, New Mexico), Aedes campestris (New Mexico) T: With mosquito bites	Brazil, Colombia, United States	Encephalitis, meningitis, encephalomyelitis	[15,129,233,234]

Taxonomic and trivial names are given according to the reports of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) https://ictv.global/msl and https://ictv.global/vmr (versions from 2022/2023); ¹ Commonly accepted alternative names not given in the reports of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV) (see above).