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. 2024 Feb 21;60(5):449–465. doi: 10.1007/s11626-024-00855-w

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Figure 1. — Four regulatory phases of Wnt signal transduction. Whole Wnt signal cascades consist of four identical regulatory events: (1) how much Wnt-producing cells secret Wnt ligand proteins to outside of the cells (left side); (2) how much Wnt-receiving cells are stimulated by functional Wnt ligands at the extracellular and receptors on the cell surface (top); (3) how Wnt-received cells intracellularly transduce the signals to the downstream points of action (right side, upper); (4) how cells respond to the signal received via several biological reactions, including the expression of Wnt target genes (right side, bottom). ER, endoplasmic reticulum; PAM, palmitoleic acid; MVB, multivesicular body; SV, secretory vesicle; Ub, ubiquitin.