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. 2024 Apr;21(2):115–134. doi: 10.36131/cnfioritieditore20240201

Table 1.

Psychological characteristics of resilience. Experimental studies

Authors and year Country Sample Examined variables and type of assessment Findings
Cloninger & Zohar, 2011 Israel Human sample (1,102 adults)

  • -Temperament and character

  • -Affect, Life satisfaction, and Social support

  • -Health behavior and Health status

  • -TCI

  • -PANAS

  • -SWLS

  • -PSS

  • -GHQ

  • -Self-directedness is strongly associated with all aspects of wellbeing regardless of interactions with other dimensions

  • -Personality explaines nearly half the variance in happiness and more than onethird of the variance in wellness
Eley et al., 2013 Australia Human sample (479 family practitioners)

  • -Temperament and character

  • -TCI

  • -Resilience scale

  • -Resilience is associated with a personality trait pattern that is mature, responsible, optimistic, persevering, and cooperative.

  • -Resilience should be considered a component of optimal functioning and well being in doctors
Granjard et al., 2021 Sweden Human sample (293 adults) TCI

  • -Long-term unemployed sample show a lower resilient personality profile than general population.

  • -Specifically it is low in harm avoidance, high in persistence, high in self-directedness.
Josefsson et al., 2013 Finland Human sample (1,083 volunteers)

  • -TCI

  • -SES

  • -Self-rating of maternal caregiving environment

  • -Parental unhealthy habits

  • -Parental role dissatisfaction

  • -Cumulative risk-factor index

  • -Parental care-giving and home-environment more strongly associated with offspring character traits reflecting personality maturity than with offspring temperament traits reflecting emotional and behavioral tendencies

  • -Maternal variables stronger predictors than paternal variables
Lee et al., 2023 China Human sample (182 Indonesian COVID-19 nurse survivors)

  • -CBI

  • -CD-RISC

  • -PES

  • -Higher resilience is found among nurses contracting COVID-19.

  • -The absence of psychological impact is significantly related to higher burnout experience.

  • -Workplace, especially in hospitals, was associated with resilience. A gap time after receiving a negative COVID-19 result was correlated with psychological empowerment.
Nieto et al., 2023 Spain Human sample (439 adults)

  • -Resilience

  • -Neuroticism, extraversion, openness, agreeableness, conscientiousness

  • -Future hopelessness

  • -CD-RISC

  • -NEO-FFI

  • -BHS

  • -Negative relation between resilience and neuroticism.

  • -Positive association with the other personality traits.

  • -Levels of resilience negatively related to hopelessness.

  • -Older adults showed significantly lower resilience levels than young adults, although age was not a significant predictor of resilience.

  • -Neuroticism, extraversion, openness, and hopelessness were the only predictors of resilience for the current study
North & Cloninger, 2012 USA Human sample (151 survivors of the Oklahoma City bombing)

  • -DIS/DS

  • -TCI

  • -Personality features can distinguish resilience to a specific life-threatening stressor.

  • -Bombing-related PTSD was a robust marker of resilience.

  • -Major depression wasn’t a robust marker of low resilience.
Tugade & Friedrickson, 2004 USA Study 1: Human sample (57 adults)

Study 1:

  • -Psychological resilience

  • -Positive and negative ambient mood

  • -Emotion report

  • -Cognitive appraisal

  • -Cardiovascular evaluation

  • -Ego-Resiliency Scale

  • -PANAS

  • -HR; FPA; PTF; PTE; DBP; SBP

  • -High-resilient individuals report greater positive emotionality, appraise the stressful task as less threatening, experience faster cardiovascular recovery following the task, and time to achieve cardiovascular recovery mediated by experiences of positive emotions
Study 2: Human sample (57 adults)

Study 2:

  • -Psychological resilience
  • -Positive and negative ambient mood
  • -Emotion report
  • -Cognitive appraisal
  • -Cardiovascular evaluation
  • -Ego-Resiliency Scale
  • -PANAS
  • -HR; FPA; PTF; PTE

  • -High-resilient participants experience greater positive emotionality, compared with low-resilient participants

  • -High-resilient participants induced to appraise the speech task as a threat recover more quickly from the arousal generated by the task, relative to low-resilient participants. When induced to appraise the speech preparation task as a challenge, however, low-resilient participants resemble highresilient participants in their durations of cardiovascular reactivity

  • -Positive emotions mediate the effects of resilience on duration of cardiovascular reactivity for those induced to appraise the speech task as a threat
Study 3: Human sample (192 adults)

Study 3:

  • -Psychological resilience

  • -Positive and negative ambient mood

  • -Emotion report

  • -Cognitive appraisal

  • -Current problem essays

  • -Positive-meaning finding

  • -Ego-Resiliency Scale

  • -PANAS

  • -Moos’s Coping Responses Inventory

  • -Compared with low-resilient individuals, high-resilient individuals would experience greater positive emotionality and more likely find positive meaning in their negative circumstances when compared with lowresilient individuals

  • -Experience of positive emotions mediate the effects of psychological resilience on positive-meaning finding
Tutte-Vallarino et al., 2022 Uruguay Human sample (121 athletes)

  • -Optimism

  • -Resilience

  • -Burnout

  • -Life Orientation Scale-Revised (LOT-R) Spanish version

  • -ER

  • -IBD-R

  • -Resilience and optimism are statistically correlated with a lower risk of onset of burnout in professional athletes
Zohar et al., 2019 USA Human sample (752 adolescents)

  • -Personality

  • -JTCI

  • -Character develops rapidly in adolescence to self-regulate temperament in accord with personally valued goals shaped by peers.

BHS= Beck Hopelessness Scale; CBI= Copenhagen Burnout Inventory; CD-RISC= Connor–Davidson Resilience Scale; DBP= Diastolic Blood Pressure; DIS= Diagnostic Interview Schedule; DS= Disaster Supplemen; ER= Resilience Scale; FPA= Finger Pulse Amplitude; GHQ= subjective health assessment of the General Health Questionnaire; HR= Heart Rate; JTCI= Junior Temperament and Character Inventory; IBD-R= Inventory of Burnout in Athletes Revised; LOT-R= Life Orientation Scale-Revised; NEO-FFI= NEO-Five Factor Inventory; PANAS= Positive and Negative Affect Scale; PES= Psychological Empowerment Scale; PSS= Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support; PTE= Pulse transmission Time to the Ear; PTF= Pulse transmission Times to the Finger; SBP= Systolic Blood Pressure; SWLS= Satisfaction with Life Scale ; SES= Socioeconomical Status; TCI= Temperament and Character Inventory;