Skip to main content
. 2024 Jan 18;52(3):1009–1026. doi: 10.1007/s15010-023-02156-y

Table 2.

Pooled effects of risk factors on HZ, sensitivity analyses

Risk factor Effect size Heterogeneity Excluded studies
nk OR 95% CI I2 (%) 95% CI 95% PI
Asthma
Random effects model, unadjusted 11 1.30 [1.19–1.42]a 89.22 [83–93.00]a 0.06–0.46 –
Basic outlier removal 11 1.30 [1.20–1.40]a 89.22 [83–93.00]a 0.06–0.46 –
Influence analysis („leave-one-out”) 10 1.27 [1.20–1.40]a 65.59 [33–82.00]a 1.08–1.48 [45]
GOSH-Diagnostics Connectivity (DBSCAN) clustering 10 1.27 [1.20–1.40]a 65.59 [33–82.00]a 1.08–1.48 [45]
Gaussian mixture model (GMM) clustering 10 1.28 [1.20–1.40]a 89.66 [83–94.00]a 1.05–1.56 [68]
K-means clustering 10 1.30 [1.20–1.40]a 90.11 [84–94.00]a 1.06–1.60 [52]
Autoimmune disorders
Random effects model, unadjusted 16 1.33 [0.98–1.80] 98.28 [98–99.00]a − 0.95–1.52 –
Basic outlier removal 13 1.40 [1.20–1.60]a 91.11 [87–94.00]a − 0.14–0.81 [40, 45, 77]
Influence analysis („leave-one-out”) 14 1.46 [1.30–1.70]a 92.55 [89–95.00]a 0.84–2.54 [45, 77]
GOSH-Diagnostics Connectivity (DBSCAN) clustering 9 1.49 [1.20–1.90]a 96.22 [94–97.00]a 0.71–3.09 [49, 51, 52, 77, 89, 92]
Gaussian mixture model (GMM) clustering 9 1.49 [1.20–1.90]a 96.22 [94–97.00]a 0.71–3.09 [49, 51, 52, 77, 89, 92]
K-means clustering 15 1.53 [1.30–1.80]a 95.35 [94–97.00]a 0.82–2.84 [89]
Cancer
Random effects model, unadjusted 20 2.42 [1.91–3.07]a 99.07 [99–99.00]a − 0.18–1.95 –
Basic outlier removal 13 2.21 [1.90–2.60]a 95.93 [94–97.00]a 0.43–1.16 [49, 86, 93, 116, 117]
Influence analysis („leave-one-out”) 18 2.24 [1.80–2.80]a 97.58 [97–98.00]a 0.90–5.53 [49, 89]
GOSH-Diagnostics Connectivity (DBSCAN) clustering 13 2.45 [2.00–3.10]a 97.26 [96–98.00]a 1.09–5.55 [49, 52, 86, 89, 93, 103]
Gaussian mixture model (GMM) clustering 13 2.45 [2.00–3.10]a 97.26 [96–98.00]a 1.09–5.55 [49, 52, 86, 89, 93, 103]
K-means clustering 19 2.25 [1.80–2.80]a 99.05 [99–99.00]a 0.94–5.37 [103]
Cardiovascular disorders
Random effects model, unadjusted 11 1.39 [1.12–1.73]a 99.33 [99–99.00]a − 0.42–1.08 –
Basic outlier removal 8 1.30 [1.00–1.60]a 92.62 [88–96.00]a − 0.44–0.96 [13, 45]
Influence analysis („leave-one-out”) 9 1.37 [1.10–1.80]a 98.62 [98–99.00]a 0.64–2.94 [13, 45]
GOSH-Diagnostics Connectivity (DBSCAN) clustering 7 1.26 [0.92–1.70] 99.39 [99–100.00]a 0.50–3.17 [45, 103, 111]
Gaussian mixture model (GMM) clustering 7 1.26 [0.92–1.70] 99.39 [99–100.00]a 0.50–3.17 [45, 103, 111]
K-means clustering 10 1.40 [1.10–1.80]a 99.40 [99–100.00]a 0.64–3.07 [45]
CHF
Random effects model, unadjusted 7 1.35 [0.99–1.84] 98.48 [98–99.00]a − 0.55–1.15 –
Basic outlier removal 6 1.24 [0.93–1.70] 91.74 [85–96.00]a − 0.46–0.90 [45]
Influence analysis („leave-one-out”) 6 1.24 [0.93–1.70] 91.74 [85–96.00]a 0.63–2.45 [45]
GOSH-Diagnostics Connectivity (DBSCAN) clustering 5 1.32 [0.93–1.90] 76.13 [42–90.00]a 0.64–2.73 [83, 111]
Gaussian mixture model (GMM) clustering 5 1.32 [0.93–1.90] 76.13 [42–90.00]a 0.64–2.73 [83, 111]
K-means clustering 5 1.26 [0.85–1.90] 93.35 [87–96.00]a 0.49–3.24 [45, 111]
COPD
Random effects model, unadjusted 10 1.55 [1.04–2.31]a 99.91 [100–100.00]a − 0.86–1.74 –
Basic outlier removal 9 1.38 [1.10–1.70]a 99.08 [99–99.00]a − 0.28–0.92 [75]
Influence analysis („leave-one-out”) 9 1.38 [1.10–1.70]a 99.08 [99–99.00]a 0.76–2.51 [75]
GOSH-Diagnostics Connectivity (DBSCAN) clustering 8 1.34 [1.10–1.70]a 99.19 [99–99.00]a 0.70–2.54 [45, 85]
Gaussian mixture model (GMM) clustering 8 1.34 [1.10–1.70]a 99.19 [99–99.00]a 0.70–2.54 [45, 85]
K-means clustering 9 1.38 [1.10–1.70]a 99.08 [99–99.00]a 0.76–2.51 [85]
Depression
Random effects model, unadjusted 9 1.27 [1.08–1.49]a 95.98 [94–97.00]a  − 0.10–0.57 –
Basic outlier removal 8 1.23 [1.10–1.40]a 96.18 [94–97.00]a − 0.08–0.50 [106]
Influence analysis („leave-one-out”) 8 1.21 [1.10–1.40]a 84.52 [71–92.00]a 0.98–1.48 [99]
GOSH-Diagnostics Connectivity (DBSCAN) clustering 6 1.20 [1.10–1.30]a 82.43 [63–92.00]a 0.96–1.50 [13, 51, 52]
Gaussian mixture model (GMM) clustering 6 1.20 [1.10–1.30]a 82.43 [63–92.00]a 0.96–1.50 [13, 51, 52]
K-means clustering 8 1.23 [1.10–1.40]a 96.18 [94–97.00]a 0.93–1.64 [13]
Diabetes
Random effects model, unadjusted 17 1.26 [1.03–1.54]a 99.70 [100–100.00]a  − 0.62–1.08 –
Basic outlier removal 13 1.21 [1.10–1.40]a 96.33 [95–97.00]a  − 0.22–0.60 [45, 49, 73, 82]
Influence analysis („leave-one-out”) 14 1.26 [1.10–1.40]a 99.38 [99–99.00]a 0.76–2.09 [49, 73, 82]
GOSH-Diagnostics Connectivity (DBSCAN) clustering 15 1.24 [1.00–1.50] 99.74 [100–100.00]a 0.52–2.99 [13, 45]
Gaussian mixture model (GMM) clustering 15 1.24 [1.00–1.50] 99.74 [100–100.00]a 0.52–2.99 [13, 45]
K-means clustering 15 1.29 [1.10–1.50]a 99.69 [100–100.00]a 0.76–2.18 [41, 100]
Digestive disorders
Random effects model, unadjusted 11 1.26 [0.98–1.61] 97.18 [96–98.00]a  − 0.60–1.06 –
Basic outlier removal 6 1.36 [1.20–1.60]a 73.86 [40–89.00]a 0.04–0.57 [55, 61, 72, 90]
Influence analysis („leave-one-out”) 9 1.20 [0.92–1.60] 96.68 [95–98.00]a 0.53–2.75 [58, 72]
GOSH-Diagnostics Connectivity (DBSCAN) clustering 7 1.14 [0.78–1.70] 98.24 [98–99.00]a 0.37–3.48 [38, 53, 65, 72]
Gaussian mixture model (GMM) clustering 7 1.14 [0.78–1.70] 98.24 [98–99.00]a 0.37–3.48 [38, 53, 65, 72]
K-means clustering 9 1.16 [0.91–1.50] 96.69 [95–98.00]a 0.53–2.54 [38, 58]
Endocrine and metabolic disorders
Random effects model, unadjusted 8 1.26 [1.04–1.54]a 90.31 [83–94.00]a  − 0.35–0.82 –
Basic outlier removal 7 1.33 [1.10–1.60]a 88.96 [80–94.00]a  − 0.18–0.76 [86]
Influence analysis („leave-one-out”) 6 1.29 [1.10–1.50]a 86.50 [73–93.00]a 0.79–2.09 [51, 86]
GOSH-Diagnostics Connectivity (DBSCAN) clustering 7 1.33 [1.10–1.60]a 88.96 [80–94.00]a 0.83–2.13 [52]
Gaussian mixture model (GMM) clustering 7 1.33 [1.10–1.60]a 88.96 [80–94.00]a 0.83–2.13 [52]
K-means clustering 7 1.29 [1.00–1.60]a 91.67 [85–95.00]a 0.67–2.49 [50]
Hematological disorders
Random effects model, unadjusted 7 2.16 [1.36–3.44]a 94.20 [90–96.00]a  − 0.55–2.09 –
Basic outlier removal 7 2.16 [1.40–3.40]a 94.20 [90–96.00]a  − 0.55–2.09 –
Influence analysis („leave-one-out”) 5 2.19 [1.50–3.30]a 81.02 [56–92.00]a 0.76–6.32 [60, 118]
GOSH-Diagnostics Connectivity (DBSCAN) clustering 5 2.19 [1.50–3.30]a 81.02 [56–92.00]a 0.76–6.32 [92, 98]
Gaussian mixture model (GMM) clustering 5 2.19 [1.50–3.30]a 81.02 [56–92.00]a 0.76–6.32 [92, 98]
K-means clustering 5 2.43 [1.50–4.00]a 94.94 [91–97.00]a 0.62–9.50 [92]
HIV
Random effects model, unadjusted 12 1.81 [1.21–2.69]a 93.67 [91–96.00]a  − 0.77–1.95 –
Basic outlier removal 10 1.43 [1.00–2.00]a 87.19 [78–92.00]a  − 0.61–1.32 [89, 118]
Influence analysis („leave-one-out”) 10 1.69 [1.10–2.50]a 87.43 [79–93.00]a 0.52–5.52 [86, 92]
GOSH-Diagnostics Connectivity (DBSCAN) clustering 8 1.64 [0.90–3.00] 92.07 [87–95.00]a 0.28–9.60 [82, 86, 89, 118]
Gaussian mixture model (GMM) clustering 8 1.64 [0.90–3.00] 92.07 [87–95.00]a 0.28–9.60 [82, 86, 89, 118]
K-means clustering 9 1.55 [1.10–2.10]a 87.12 [78–93.00]a 0.61–3.92 [63, 71, 86]
IBD
Random effects model, unadjusted 8 1.68 [1.02–2.75]a 99.73 [100–100.00]a  − 1.02–2.05 –
Basic outlier removal 6 1.50 [1.30–1.80]a 97.38 [96–98.00]a  − 0.05–0.86 [55, 64]
Influence analysis („leave-one-out”) 7 1.86 [1.10–3.10]a 99.75 [100–100.00]a 0.41–8.57 [64]
GOSH-Diagnostics Connectivity (DBSCAN) clustering 7 1.38 [1.10–1.80]a 98.02 [97–99.00]a 0.66–2.87 [52]
Gaussian mixture model (GMM) clustering 7 1.38 [1.10–1.80]a 98.02 [97–99.00]a 0.66–2.87 [52]
K-means clustering 7 1.38 [1.10–1.80]a 98.02 [97–99.00]a 0.66–2.87 [52]
Mental health condition
Random effects model, unadjusted 15 1.43 [0.98–2.11] 99.65 [100–100.00]a  − 1.18–1.90 –
Basic outlier removal 13 1.16 [1.00–1.30]a 87.85 [81–92.00]a  − 0.19–0.48 [106, 114]
Influence analysis („leave-one-out”) 14 1.23 [1.00–1.50]a 91.08 [87–94.00]a 0.66–2.28 [114]
GOSH-Diagnostics Connectivity (DBSCAN) clustering 9 1.64 [0.83–3.20] 99.80 [100–100.00]a 0.18–14.50 [44, 74, 109, 110, 114]
Gaussian mixture model (GMM) clustering 9 1.64 [0.83–3.20] 99.80 [100–100.00]a 0.18–14.50 [44, 74, 109, 110, 114]
K-means clustering 14 1.23 [1.00–1.50]a 91.08 [87–94.00]a 0.66–2.28 [110]
Musculoskeletal disorders
Random effects model, unadjusted 14 1.43 [1.22–1.67]a 96.45 [95–97.00]a  − 0.19–0.90 –
Basic outlier removal 11 1.3 [1.20–1.40]a 88.21 [81–93.00]a 0.00–0.52 [51, 52, 86]
Influence analysis („leave-one-out”) 12 1.37 [1.20–1.60]a 91.37 [87–94.00]a 0.78–2.39 [52, 86]
GOSH-Diagnostics Connectivity (DBSCAN) clustering 9 1.45 [1.10–1.90]a 93.61 [90–96.00]a 0.66–3.23 [52, 81, 99, 103]
Gaussian mixture model (GMM) clustering 9 1.45 [1.10–1.90]a 93.61 [90–96.00]a 0.66–3.23 [52, 81, 99, 103]
K-means clustering 12 1.34 [1.20–1.50]a 96.48 [95–97.00]a 0.88–2.04 [86, 107]
Neurological disorders
Random effects model, unadjusted 6 1.52 [1.08–2.14]a 96.47 [94–98.00]a  − 0.53–1.37 –
Basic outlier removal 5 1.32 [1.10–1.60]a 88.15 [75–94.00]a  − 0.26–0.82 [79]
Influence analysis („leave-one-out”) 5 1.32 [1.10–1.60]a 88.15 [75–94.00]a 0.77–2.27 [79]
GOSH-Diagnostics Connectivity (DBSCAN) clustering 5 1.32 [1.10–1.60]a 88.15 [75–94.00]a 0.77–2.27 [51]
Gaussian mixture model (GMM) clustering 5 1.32 [1.10–1.60]a 88.15 [75–94.00]a 0.77–2.27 [51]
K-means clustering 4 1.35 [1.00–1.80]a 91.00 [80–96.00]a 0.61–2.97 [51, 54]
Psoriasis
Random effects model, unadjusted 6 1.25 [1.08–1.44]a 98.09 [97–99.00]a  − 0.18–0.63 –
Basic outlier removal 5 1.16 [1.10–1.30]a 59.33 [0 -85.00]a  − 0.10–0.40 [89]
Influence analysis („leave-one-out”) 4 1.21 [1.10–1.30]a 0.00 [0–85.00] 1.04–1.42 [86, 89]
GOSH-Diagnostics Connectivity (DBSCAN) clustering 6 1.25 [1.10–1.40]a 98.09 [97–99.00]a 0.83–1.87 –
Gaussian mixture model (GMM) clustering 6 1.25 [1.10–1.40]a 98.09 [97–99.00]a 0.83–1.87 –
K-means clustering 4 1.21 [1.10–1.30]a 0.00 [0–85.00] 1.04–1.42 [51, 86]
Renal disorders
Random effects model, unadjusted 10 1.17 [0.93–1.48] 94.82 [92–97.00]a  − 0.59–0.91 –
Basic outlier removal 8 1.15 [1.00–1.30] 84.85 [72–92.00]a  − 0.22–0.51 [49, 60]
Influence analysis („leave-one-out”) 8 1.28 [1.00–1.60] 90.00 [83–94.00]a 0.65–2.51 [62, 118]
GOSH-Diagnostics Connectivity (DBSCAN) clustering 9 1.18 [0.91–1.50] 95.39 [93–97.00]a 0.53–2.64 [52]
Gaussian mixture model (GMM) clustering 9 1.26 [1.00–1.50] 89.47 [82–94.00]a 0.69–2.28 [52]
K-means clustering 8 1.27 [1.00–1.60] 90.79 [84–95.00]a 0.66–2.43 [52, 60]
RA
Random effects model, unadjusted 13 1.62 [1.29–2.02]a 99.03 [99–99.00]a  − 0.34–1.30 –
Basic outlier removal 10 1.62 [1.40–1.90]a 93.26 [90–96.00]a  − 0.02–0.99 [69, 88, 89]
Influence analysis („leave-one-out”) 10 1.74 [1.40–2.10]a 97.16 [96–98.00]a 0.98–3.10 [69, 88, 89]
GOSH-Diagnostics Connectivity (DBSCAN) clustering 5 2.08 [1.70–2.50]a 95.61 [92–98.00]a 1.25–3.47 [13, 49, 51, 86, 88, 89, 92]
Gaussian mixture model (GMM) clustering 5 2.08 [1.70–2.50]a 95.61 [92–98.00]a 1.25–3.47 [13, 49, 51, 86, 88, 89, 92]
K-means clustering 12 1.75 [1.50–2.10]a 98.56 [98–99.00]a 0.96–3.17 [51]
SLE
Random effects model, unadjusted 10 2.87 [1.99–4.13]a 97.59 [97–98.00]a  − 0.17–2.28 –
Basic outlier removal 6 2.91 [2.10–4.00]a 91.97 [85–96.00]a 0.14–2.00 [39, 66, 69, 92]
Influence analysis („leave-one-out”) 8 2.93 [2.10–4.10]a 96.95 [96–98.00]a 1.05–8.23 [39, 66]
GOSH-Diagnostics Connectivity (DBSCAN) clustering 6 2.63 [1.40–4.90]a 94.15 [90–97.00]a 0.44–15.90 [49, 51, 52, 92]
Gaussian mixture model (GMM) clustering 6 2.63 [1.40–4.90]a 94.15 [90–97.00]a 0.44–15.90 [49, 51, 52, 92]
K-means clustering 9 3.18 [2.30–4.40]a 96.76 [95–98.00]a 1.09–9.29 [89]
Transplantation
Random effects model, unadjusted 10 4.51 [1.90–10.70]a 98.43 [98–99.00]a  − 1.20–4.21 –
Basic outlier removal 7 3.68 [2.00–6.80]a 98.27 [98–99.00]a  − 0.26–2.87 [51, 52, 82]
Influence analysis („leave-one-out”) 8 3.55 [1.30–9.80]a 97.27 [96–98.00]a 0.19–64.80 [89, 117]
GOSH-Diagnostics Connectivity (DBSCAN) clustering 9 5.59 [2.70–12.00]a 98.58 [98–99.00]a 0.56–56.10 [52]
Gaussian mixture model (GMM) clustering 9 5.59 [2.70–12.00]a 98.58 [98–99.00]a 0.56–56.10 [52]
K-means clustering 8 5.15 [2.30–12.00]a 98.75 [98–99.00]a 0.45–59.30 [48, 52]

nk, number of studies; OR, odds ratio; CI, confidence interval; PI, prediction interval

aIndicates significant values p < 0.005