Table 2. Association of demographic and socioeconomic factors with SARS-CoV-2 testing in two districts of Uttar Pradesh, India.
* Unadjusted prevalence ratios are derived from bivariate Poisson regression models with whether the individual was tested for SARS-CoV-2 or not.
** Adjusted prevalence ratios are derived from multiple variate Poisson regression models adjusting for district, age category, gender, religion, caste, marital status, education, occupation before the COVID-19 pandemic, occupation change after the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic, average individual monthly income in 2021, average household monthly income in 2021, household size, watch TV, use of the Internet on mobile, usual healthcare source in last 5 years, and use of tobacco in last 3 years.
| SARS-Cov-2 tested | Unadjusted* | Adjusted** | ||
| PR | 95% CI | PR | 95% CI | |
| District (Ref: Lucknow) | ||||
| Sitapur | 0.40 | (0.35, 0.47) | 0.47 | (0.39, 0.57) |
| Age category (Ref: 18-29 years) | ||||
| 30-39 | 0.91 | (0.75, 1.11) | 0.90 | (0.74, 1.11) |
| 40-49 | 1.05 | (0.88, 1.26) | 1.02 | (0.83, 1.25) |
| 50-59 | 1.05 | (0.86, 1.28) | 1.01 | (0.82, 1.24) |
| 60+ | 1.16 | (0.94, 1.44) | 1.01 | (0.80, 1.27) |
| Gender (Ref: Female) | ||||
| Male | 1.15 | (1.01, 1.30) | 0.94 | (0.79, 1.12) |
| Religion (Ref: Hindu) | ||||
| Muslim | 0.99 | (0.77, 1.27) | 1.09 | (0.87, 1.37) |
| Caste (Ref: General) | ||||
| Other backward caste | 1.19 | (1.02, 1.40) | 1.15 | (0.99, 1.34) |
| Scheduled caste | 0.93 | (0.73, 1.17) | 1.22 | (0.95, 1.56) |
| Scheduled tribe | 1.87 | (1.63, 2.15) | 5.33 | (3.54, 8.02) |
| Marital status (Ref: Married) | ||||
| Never married | 0.95 | (0.78, 1.16) | 0.82 | (0.62, 1.08) |
| Widowed | 0.77 | (0.51, 1.18) | 0.85 | (0.58, 1.25) |
| Education (Ref: No education) | ||||
| Primary education | 1.12 | (0.83, 1.50) | 1.02 | (0.77, 1.35) |
| Secondary education | 1.25 | (1.02, 1.53) | 0.89 | (0.71, 1.11) |
| Graduation | 1.68 | (1.38, 2.05) | 0.93 | (0.72, 1.21) |
| Postgraduation | 1.99 | (1.64, 2.42) | 1.04 | (0.79, 1.35) |
| Occupation before the COVID-19 pandemic (Ref: Homemaker) | ||||
| Unpaid worker | 1.07 | (0.61, 1.85) | 2.26 | (0.98, 5.21) |
| Labour | 1.13 | (0.93, 1.38) | 1.31 | (0.65, 2.65) |
| Student | 1.20 | (0.92, 1.56) | 1.22 | (0.89, 1.66) |
| Self‐employed | 1.08 | (0.90, 1.30) | 1.43 | (0.71, 2.89) |
| Regular salaried | 1.69 | (1.46, 1.95) | 1.69 | (0.83, 3.44) |
| Occupation change after the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic (Ref: Lost) | ||||
| Lost but regained | 0.94 | (0.68, 1.28) | 0.94 | (0.45, 1.95) |
| No Change | 0.79 | (0.59, 1.06) | 0.78 | (0.38, 1.58) |
| Average individual monthly income in 2021 (ref: No income) | ||||
| Below Poverty Line | 0.79 | (0.63, 0.99 | 0.67 | (0.33, 1.34) |
| Low income | 1.29 | (1.11, 1.49) | 0.78 | (0.39, 1.55) |
| Middle income | 1.63 | (1.43, 1.86) | 0.68 | (0.33, 1.39) |
| Average household monthly income in 2021 (Ref: Below Poverty Line) | ||||
| Low income | 1.50 | (1.15, 1.97) | 1.46 | (1.12, 1.89) |
| Middle income | 2.01 | (1.55, 2.62) | 1.52 | (1.14, 2.02) |
| High income | 2.54 | (1.91, 3.37) | 1.73 | (1.23, 2.45) |
| Household size (Ref: 1) | ||||
| 2 | 1.29 | (0.47, 3.56) | 0.78 | (0.29, 2.10) |
| 3 | 1.33 | (0.49, 3.62) | 0.71 | (0.26, 1.92) |
| 4 | 1.47 | (0.55, 3.94) | 0.76 | (0.28, 2.04) |
| 5 | 1.11 | (0.41, 2.97) | 0.69 | (0.26, 1.86) |
| >5 | 1.06 | (0.40, 2.85) | 0.77 | (0.29, 2.06) |
| Watch TV (Ref: Almost every day) | ||||
| Not at all | 0.56 | (0.48, 0.65) | 0.83 | (0.70, 0.99) |
| Use of the Internet on mobile (Ref: Almost every day) | ||||
| Not at all | 0.54 | (0.47, 0.63) | 0.82 | (0.67, 0.99) |
| Usual healthcare source in last 5 years (Ref: Government facility) | ||||
| Private facility | 0.88 | (0.78, 1.00) | 0.87 | (0.77, 0.99) |
| Traditional healers | 0.52 | (0.25, 1.07) | 1.03 | (0.51, 2.08) |
| Use of tobacco in last 3 years (Ref: No) | ||||
| Yes | 0.87 | (0.75, 1.00) | 1.03 | (0.86, 1.22) |