Table 2.
Demographic and socio-economic factors associated with ultra-processed food (UPF) intake in adults (20–97 years; n 8569) from the INHES study cohort, by means of adjusted regression coefficients (β) with 95 % confidence interval (95 % CI), Italy 2010–2013
| n | % | Ultra-processed food intake (% of total energy) | ||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Crude mean | sd | β | 95 % CI* | P-value | β | 95 % CI† | P-value | |||
| Sex | ||||||||||
| Women | 4592 | 53·6 | 17·8 | 12·7 | Ref. | Ref. | ||||
| Men | 3977 | 46·4 | 16·8 | 12·2 | −0·45 | −0·75, −0·15 | 0·0029 | −1·28 | −1·89, −0·68 | <0·0001 |
| Age groups, years | ||||||||||
| 20–40 | 974 | 11·4 | 20·7 | 12·7 | Ref. | Ref. | ||||
| 41–65 | 4793 | 55·9 | 18·3 | 12·8 | −2·12 | −2·58, −1·66 | <0·0001 | −1·15 | −2·14, −0·15 | <0·0001 |
| >65 | 2802 | 32·7 | 14·5 | 11·1 | −4·08 | −4·57, −3·58 | <0·0001 | −3·10 | −4·40, −1·80 | 0·024 |
| Geographical area | ||||||||||
| Northern Italy | 3500 | 40·9 | 17·8 | 12·9 | Ref. | Ref. | ||||
| Central Italy | 1391 | 16·2 | 17·5 | 11·6 | −0·23 | −0·99, 0·53 | 0·55 | −0·23 | −0·99, 0·53 | 0·56 |
| Southern Italy | 3678 | 42·9 | 16·8 | 12·3 | −1·26 | −1·83, −0·67 | <0·0001 | −0·73 | −1·32, −0·14 | 0·014 |
| Place of residence | ||||||||||
| Rural | 1168 | 13·6 | 15·5 | 11·8 | Ref. | Ref. | ||||
| Urban | 7401 | 86·4 | 17·6 | 12·5 | 2·11 | 1·36, 2·87 | <0·0001 | 1·64 | 0·87, 2·42 | <0·0001 |
| Educational level | ||||||||||
| Up, elementary | 1532 | 17·8 | 14·6 | 11·1 | Ref. | Ref. | ||||
| Lower secondary | 2258 | 26·4 | 17·2 | 12·3 | 0·99 | 0·15, 1·84 | 0·021 | 0·70 | −0·15, 1·55 | 0·11 |
| Upper secondary | 3413 | 39·8 | 18·0 | 12·5 | 1·23 | 0·41, 2·06 | 0·0034 | 0·55 | −1·36, 0·74 | 0·20 |
| Post-secondary | 1375 | 16·0 | 18·7 | 13·6 | 1·57 | 0·60, 2·55 | 0·0016 | 0·65 | −2·14, 0·44 | 0·22 |
| Occupation | ||||||||||
| Manual | 1521 | 17·8 | 18·7 | 12·7 | Ref. | Ref. | ||||
| Non-manual | 2637 | 30·8 | 19·1 | 13·3 | −0·16 | −0·62, 0·94 | 0·69 | −0·02 | −0·85, 0·81 | 0·96 |
| Housewife | 952 | 11·1 | 17·3 | 12·1 | −1·36 | −2·43, −0·30 | 0·012 | −0·79 | −1·86, 0·29 | 0·15 |
| Retired | 3071 | 35·8 | 14·8 | 11·3 | −2·09 | −3·04, −1·15 | <0·0001 | −1·87 | −2·83, −0·91 | 0·0001 |
| Student | 140 | 1·6 | 22·0 | 13·0 | 1·43 | −0·81, 3·69 | 0·21 | 0·69 | −1·60, 2·98 | 0·55 |
| Unemployed | 248 | 2·9 | 18·6 | 12·3 | −0·54 | −2·20, 1·11 | 0·52 | −0·64 | −2·30, 1·01 | 0·44 |
| Marital status | ||||||||||
| Married /in couple | 6470 | 75·5 | 16·8 | 12·3 | Ref. | Ref. | ||||
| Unmarried | 1221 | 14·2 | 20·1 | 12·9 | 1·78 | 1·38, 3·50 | <0·0001 | 1·26 | 0·37, 2·15 | 0·0053 |
| Separated/divorced | 272 | 3·2 | 19·9 | 14·4 | 2·47 | 0·98, 3·96 | 0·0011 | 1·88 | 0·38, 3·38 | 0·014 |
| Widowed | 606 | 7·1 | 15·9 | 11·9 | 0·94 | −0·15, 2·02 | 0·090 | 1·16 | 0·07, 2·24 | 0·037 |
| Smoking habit | ||||||||||
| Non-smoker | 5123 | 59·8 | 17·2 | 12·5 | Ref. | Ref. | ||||
| Current | 1374 | 16·0 | 18·0 | 13·3 | 0·30 | −0·43, 1·04 | 0·43 | 0·21 | −0·53, 0·95 | 0·58 |
| Former | 1909 | 22·3 | 17·1 | 11·9 | 0·78 | 0·11, 1·45 | 0·022 | 0·90 | 0·22, 1·57 | 0·0095 |
| Occasional | 163 | 1·9 | 17·5 | 12·1 | −0·23 | −2·15, 1·68 | 0·81 | −0·50 | −2·40, 1·41 | 0·61 |
| Sport activity | ||||||||||
| No | 7010 | 81·8 | 16·8 | 12·2 | Ref. | Ref. | ||||
| Yes | 1559 | 18·2 | 19·8 | 13·2 | 2·11 | 1·43, 2·80 | <0·0001 | 1·68 | 0·98, 2·38 | <0·0001 |
| CVD | ||||||||||
| No | 8283 | 96·7 | 17·3 | 12·5 | Ref. | Ref. | ||||
| Yes | 286 | 3·3 | 16·7 | 12·2 | 1·49 | 0·02, 2·96 | 0·047 | 1·64 | 0·16, 3·12 | 0·030 |
| Cancer | ||||||||||
| No | 8280 | 96·6 | 17·3 | 12·5 | Ref. | Ref. | ||||
| Yes | 289 | 3·4 | 18·0 | 12·9 | 1·41 | −0·03, 2·86 | 0·055 | 1·33 | −0·11, 2·77 | 0·071 |
| Hypertension‡ | ||||||||||
| No | 5795 | 67·6 | 18·2 | 12·8 | Ref. | Ref. | ||||
| Yes | 2762 | 32·2 | 15·5 | 11·6 | −1·09 | −1·70, −0·49 | 0·0004 | −0·61 | −1·24, 0·02 | 0·059 |
| Hyperlipidaemia‡ | ||||||||||
| No | 6658 | 77·7 | 17·6 | 12·6 | Ref. | Ref. | ||||
| Yes | 1888 | 22·0 | 16·2 | 12·0 | −0·41 | −1·05, 0·23 | 0·21 | −0·19 | −0·85, 0·46 | 0·56 |
| Diabetes‡ | ||||||||||
| No | 7904 | 92·2 | 17·6 | 12·5 | Ref. | Ref. | ||||
| Yes | 644 | 7·5 | 14·5 | 11·2 | −1·34 | −2·35, −0·33 | 0·0092 | −0·83 | −1·85, 0·20 | 0·11 |
| BMI | ||||||||||
| Normal weight | 4122 | 48·1 | 18·2 | 12·9 | Ref. | Ref. | ||||
| Overweight | 3296 | 38·5 | 16·6 | 12·0 | −1·08 | −1·89, −0·27 | 0·0090 | −0·36 | −0·95, 0·23 | 0·24 |
| Obese | 1151 | 13·4 | 16·4 | 12·0 | −0·83 | −1·41, −0·25 | 0·0053 | −0·37 | −1·22, 0·47 | 0·39 |
*
Multivariable-adjusted linear regression including age groups, sex and energy intake (continuous).
†
Multivariable-adjusted linear regression including all variables in the Table.
‡
Missing data: hypertension (n 12), hyperlipidaemia (n 23), diabetes (n 21).