Table 3.
Association of meal patterns and eating behaviours with ultra-processed food intake in adults (20–97 years) and children/adolescents (5–19 years), by means of adjusted regression coefficients (β) with 95 % confidence interval (95 % CI), Italy 2010–2013
| Adults (n 8569) | Children/adolescents (n 509) | |||||||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Ultra-processed food intake (% of total energy) | Ultra-processed food intake (% of total energy) | |||||||||||||
| n | % | Crude mean | sd | β | 95 % CI* | P-value | n | % | Crude mean | sd | β | 95 % CI† | P-value | |
| Breakfast | ||||||||||||||
| Home | 8018 | 93·6 | 17·2 | 12·3 | Ref. | 452 | 88·8 | 26·2 | 12·5 | Ref. | ||||
| Out | 320 | 3·7 | 21·1 | 13·7 | 2·84 | 1·46, 4·22 | <0·0001 | 23 | 4·5 | 30·5 | 12·8 | 5·92 | 0·65, 11·18 | 0·028 |
| Having breakfast | ||||||||||||||
| Never/rarely | 137 | 1·6 | 15·0 | 13·2 | Ref. | 41 | 8·1 | 19·5 | 14·1 | Ref. | ||||
| Always | 7576 | 88·4 | 17·7 | 12·3 | 3·24 | 1·18, 5·30 | 0·0020 | 456 | 89·6 | 26·5 | 12·4 | 6·34 | 2·27, 10·40 | 0·0023 |
| Only with coffee | 763 | 8·9 | 13·3 | 12·6 | −1·23 | −3·45, 0·98 | 0·28 | 9 | 1·8 | 25·8 | 14·4 | 8·53 | −0·58, 17·63 | 0·066 |
| Late morning snack | ||||||||||||||
| Never/rarely | 5958 | 69·5 | 16·7 | 12·4 | Ref. | 145 | 28·5 | 25·0 | 14·0 | Ref. | ||||
| Always | 2507 | 29·3 | 18·7 | 12·4 | 1·34 | 0·76, 1·92 | <0·0001 | 360 | 70·7 | 26·2 | 12·1 | 0·14 | −2·35, 2·62 | 0·91 |
| Lunch | ||||||||||||||
| Home | 7528 | 87·9 | 16·8 | 12·2 | Ref. | 480 | 94·3 | 25·8 | 12·8 | Ref. | ||||
| Out | 908 | 10·6 | 21·6 | 13·8 | 3·14 | 2·25, 4·04 | <0·0001 | 23 | 4·5 | 27·0 | 10·7 | −2·82 | −8·50, 2·85 | 0·33 |
| Lunch | ||||||||||||||
| Never/rarely | 35 | 0·4 | 19·6 | 15·2 | Ref. | 1 | 0·2 | 31·2 | – | Ref. | ||||
| Always | 8446 | 98·6 | 17·3 | 12·4 | −1·91 | −5·97, 2·15 | 0·36 | 505 | 99·2 | 25·9 | 12·7 | −6·55 | −31·23, 18·13 | 0·60 |
| Late afternoon snack | ||||||||||||||
| Never/rarely | 6293 | 73·4 | 16·7 | 12·3 | Ref. | 182 | 35·8 | 23·3 | 12·7 | Ref. | ||||
| Always | 2171 | 25·3 | 18·9 | 12·8 | 1·77 | 1·17, 2·38 | <0·0001 | 323 | 63·5 | 27·5 | 12·4 | 3·33 | 0·99, 5·67 | 0·0054 |
| Aperitif | ||||||||||||||
| Never | 7169 | 83·7 | 16·8 | 12·1 | Ref. | 426 | 83·2 | 26·4 | 12·6 | Ref. | ||||
| Sometimes | 1204 | 14·1 | 20·5 | 13·8 | 2·08 | 1·29, 2·86 | <0·0001 | 45 | 8·8 | 24·6 | 12·9 | −0·07 | −4·16, 4·02 | 0·97 |
| Always | 129 | 1·5 | 19·8 | 13·9 | 1·17 | −0·97, 3·32 | 0·28 | 35 | 6·9 | 22·1 | 13·3 | −1·59 | −6·32, 3·14 | 0·51 |
| Dinner | ||||||||||||||
| Home | 8348 | 97·4 | 17·3 | 12·4 | Ref. | 495 | 97·3 | 26·0 | 12·7 | Ref. | ||||
| Out | 77 | 0·9 | 20·0 | 13·2 | 2·11 | −0·64, 4·85 | 0·13 | 4 | 0·8 | 28·0 | 9·9 | −0·37 | −12·93, 12·19 | 0·95 |
| Dinner | ||||||||||||||
| Never/rarely | 37 | 0·4 | 23·2 | 15·8 | Ref. | 1 | 0·2 | 26·5 | – | Ref. | ||||
| Always | 8435 | 98·4 | 17·3 | 12·4 | −6·24 | −10·17, −2·30 | 0·0019 | 505 | 99·2 | 25·9 | 12·7 | 2·30 | −22·51, 27·11 | 0·86 |
| Time spent watching TV | ||||||||||||||
| <1 h/d | 562 | 6·6 | 18·9 | 13·8 | Ref. | 50 | 9·8 | 25·6 | 11·8 | Ref. | ||||
| ≥1 < 2 h/d | 2582 | 30·1 | 18·6 | 12·8 | −0·58 | −1·70, 0·54 | 0·31 | 189 | 37·1 | 25·4 | 12·9 | −0·07 | −4·07, 3·93 | 0·97 |
| ≥2 < 4 h/d | 4305 | 50·2 | 16·9 | 12·2 | −1·56 | −2·66, −0·46 | 0·0053 | 249 | 48·9 | 26·4 | 12·6 | 0·34 | −3·58, 4·27 | 0·86 |
| ≥4 h/d | 1059 | 12·4 | 14·4 | 11·6 | −2·71 | −4·04, −1·38 | <0·0001 | 16 | 3·1 | 25·0 | 13·0 | −0·98 | −8·12, 6·16 | 0·79 |
| Time spent using PC | ||||||||||||||
| <1 h/d | 4485 | 52·3 | 15·9 | 11·9 | Ref. | 88 | 17·3 | 28·4 | 12·5 | Ref. | ||||
| ≥1 < 2 h/d | 1606 | 18·7 | 19·9 | 13·1 | 1·63 | 0·83, 2·43 | <0·0001 | 120 | 23·6 | 26·9 | 13·2 | −0·11 | −3·69, 3·44 | 0·95 |
| ≥2 < 4 h/d | 1790 | 20·9 | 17·8 | 12·8 | −0·55 | −1·35, 0·25 | 0·18 | 208 | 40·9 | 25·4 | 12·1 | −1·43 | −4·85, 2·00 | 0·41 |
| ≥4 h/d | 623 | 7·3 | 19·9 | 12·3 | 1·07 | −0·07, 2·21 | 0·066 | 89 | 17·5 | 23·7 | 12·9 | −2·39 | −6·50, 1·73 | 0·25 |
| Having meals while watching TV | ||||||||||||||
| Never | 7907 | 92·3 | 17·2 | 12·4 | Ref. | 460 | 90·4 | 26·0 | 12·7 | Ref. | ||||
| Sometimes | 525 | 6·1 | 19·0 | 12·5 | 1·87 | 0·79, 2·96 | 0·0007 | 35 | 6·9 | 25·6 | 12·2 | −1·52 | −5·91, 2·86 | 0·50 |
| Most of the times | 79 | 0·9 | 22·5 | 13·7 | 4·83 | 2·12, 7·53 | 0·0005 | 10 | 2·0 | 24·2 | 10·8 | −1·13 | −9·10, 6·84 | 0·78 |
| Having meals while using PC | ||||||||||||||
| Never | 8394 | 98·0 | 17·3 | 12·4 | Ref. | 484 | 95·1 | 25·9 | 12·7 | Ref. | ||||
| Sometimes | 77 | 0·9 | 21·7 | 15·7 | 2·83 | 0·08, 5·57 | 0·044 | 19 | 3·7 | 26·9 | 11·4 | −0·11 | −5·97, 5·75 | 0·97 |
| Most of the times | 13 | 0·1 | 26·9 | 13·8 | 6·73 | 0·07, 13·38 | 0·048 | 2 | 0·4 | 33·4 | 13·7 | 7·55 | −10·11, 25·22 | 0·40 |
| Breakfast time | ||||||||||||||
| Before 7:30 a.m. | 4483 | 52·3 | 17·8 | 12·4 | Ref. | 317 | 62·3 | 26·5 | 12·5 | Ref. | ||||
| After 7:30 a.m. | 3763 | 43·9 | 16·7 | 12·5 | −0·43 | −0·98, 0·11 | 0·12 | 155 | 30·5 | 26·4 | 12·7 | 0·28 | −2·19, 2·75 | 0·82 |
| Lunch time | ||||||||||||||
| Before 13:30 p.m. | 5595 | 65·3 | 17·3 | 12·4 | Ref. | 135 | 26·5 | 28·5 | 13·4 | Ref. | ||||
| After 13:30 p.m. | 2974 | 34·7 | 17·5 | 12·6 | −0·91 | −1·51, −0·32 | 0·0027 | 374 | 73·5 | 24·9 | 12·2 | −2·49 | −5·35, 0·37 | 0·088 |
| Dinner time | ||||||||||||||
| Before 8:00 p.m. | 3229 | 37·7 | 16·7 | 14·5 | Ref. | 116 | 22·8 | 27·4 | 13·8 | Ref. | ||||
| After 8:00 p.m. | 5340 | 62·3 | 17·7 | 12·4 | 0·11 | −0·48, 0·71 | 0·71 | 393 | 77·2 | 25·4 | 12·3 | −0·19 | −3·13, 2·75 | 0·90 |
Numbers do not add up to 100 % due to missing values.
*
For adults: multivariable-adjusted linear regression including age groups, sex, energy intake, geographical area, residence, educational level, occupation, marital status, smoking status, sport activity, CVD, cancer, hypertension, hypercholesterolaemia, diabetes and BMI.
†
For children/adolescents: multivariable-adjusted linear regression including age groups, sex, energy intake, geographical area, residence, educational level, smoking status, sport activity and BMI.