Table 1.

Mechanisms of microbiota-derived metabolites in blood pressure regulation.

Metabolite		Blood pressure change	Mechanisms
Short chain fatty acids	Acetate	Lower	1. Activate Treg cells, enhance mRNA levels of Tjp1.24 2. Reduced expression of IL17a and IL6.24
	Propionate	Increase or Lower	1. Activate Olfr78 to raise blood pressure,30 while activate Gpr41 to lower blood pressure.28 2. Attenuate T cells responses to Ang II, and reduce Th17 and memory T cells, leading to a decrease in blood pressure.26
	Butyrate	Lower	1. Enhance β-oxidation of the intestinal mucosa.32 2. Alleviate immune inflammatory reactions.32
Trimethylamine-N-oxide		Increase	1. Enhance the pro-hypertensive effect of Ang II.36 2. Decrease vascular compliance, induce endothelial dysfunction, and atherosclerosis.38
Bile acid		Lower	1. Lower succinate, a pro-hypertensive metabolite.40 2. Activate multiple receptors, including FXR, PXR, VDR, and TGR5.42,43
H2S		Lower	1. Dilate peripheral vessel through K-ATP channels.58 2. Attenuate Ang II-dependent autonomic dysfunction.59 3. Improve endothelial by activating the PPARδ/eNOS pathway.60 4. Inhibit renin synthesis and release.61
Serotonin		Increase or Lower	1.Activate vagal nerve and strong vasoconstriction.62,63 2.Collaborate with enteric nervous system and the autonomic nervous system.64