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. 2024 Jun 11;15:4992. doi: 10.1038/s41467-024-49429-0

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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Fig. 1 — a Schematic diagram of natural water evaporation-enabled hydrovoltagic electron generation within biofilm from ambient heat energy for microbial growth. b Mechanistic illustration of the R. palustris metabolism by uptaking WE-HE. c Cell biomass (total protein) accumulation under hydrovoltaic effect and negative control (non-evaporation and electric connection), and positive relationships between cell biomass accumulation and generated charge quantity (hydrovoltaic electrons) by natural water evaporation in the R. palustris biofilms. Data represent mean ± SD from n = 3 technical replicates from one experiment. Statistical analysis was conducted with paired two-tailed t tests. All P values are provided in the Source Data. d Three-dimensional confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) images of the R. palustris biofilms at 50 days, and the live/dead cell ratio of the biofilms. Scale bars: the unit is μm in (d).