Table 1.
Factors influencing the polarization of macrophages into M1- or M2-like phenotypes
| Factors released by tumor/immune cells/pathogens | Mode of Action - Polarization to M1- or M2-like phenotype | References | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Cytokines/Chemokines | |||
| GM-CSF | M1-like | [63, 169–172] | |
| TNF-α | |||
| IFN-γ | |||
| IL-1/-12 | |||
| TLR-agonists (i.e. LPS) a | |||
| PAMPs/DAMPs | |||
| IL-4/-13 | M2a | [63, 170, 172–177] | |
| CSF1 | |||
| PPAR-γ | |||
| IL-1β/-34 | M2b | [63, 105, 168, 170, 172, 174, 178, 179] | |
| IC + FcγRs | |||
| TLR-agonists (i.e. LPS) | |||
| IL-10 | M2c | [63, 168, 170, 172, 174, 180, 181] | |
| TGF-β | |||
| Glucocorticoids | |||
| PGE2 | |||
| IL-6/-10 | M2d | [168, 170, 172, 174, 182, 183] | |
| TNF-α | |||
| A2R-agonists (i.e. LIF) | |||
| TLR-agonists (i.e. LPS) | |||
| LPS | |||
| miRNAs | |||
| miR-21 | M1-like | [135, 170, 184–194] | |
| miR-125b | |||
| miR-127 | |||
| miR-155 | |||
| miR-181 | |||
| miR-451 | |||
| miR-495 | |||
| miR-720 | |||
| [135, 170, 184–186, 188, 189, 195–197] | |||
| miR-92a | M2-like | ||
| miR-124 | |||
| miR-125a/b | |||
| miR-130b-3p | |||
| miR-145-5p | |||
| miR-146a | |||
| miR-511-5p/3p | |||
| TME status | |||
| Local anoxia | M2-like | [63, 132, 198] | |
| High lactic acid concentration | |||
| High ROS |
Abbreviations A2R, adenosine receptor 2; CSF-1, colony stimulating factor 1; DAMP, damage-associated molecular pattern; FcγR, Fragment crystallizable region γ receptors; G-CSF, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor; GM-CSF, granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor; IC, immune complex; IFN-γ, interferon gamma; LIF, leukemia inhibitory factor; LPS, lipopolysaccharide; M-CSF, macrophage colony-stimulating factor; PAMP, pathogen-associated molecular pattern; PGE2, prostaglandin E2; PPAR-γ, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma; ROS, reactive oxygen species; TGF-β, transforming growth factor-beta; TLR, toll-like receptor; TNF-α, tumor necrosis factor alpha
a from microbes