Table 13.
Short-range communication technologies used in V2X.
| Technology | Range | Applications | Refs. |
|---|---|---|---|
| Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15.1) |
Up to 10 m | Commonly used for the user to access devices and notifications, e.g., in terms of a parking lot’s availability via smartphones or tablets; is used for inner communication between OBUs in the vehicle, e.g., for notification about an engine problem | [77,129] |
| BLE (IEEE 802.15.1) |
Up to 5 m | Commonly used for notifications and with battery-functioned small devices.; a small amount of data is used for transmission, e.g., only the device ID; not suitable for inter-vehicular communication or precise localization applications because of its severe fading effects | [15] |
| UWB (IEEE 802.15.3) |
Up to 10 m | Because of low signal amplitude, it is less sensitive to the noisy environment and thus has more secure signal transmission, e.g., secure locking and unlocking of vehicles using key fobs; uses radio-based localization with the accuracy of sub-meters | [37,76] |
| Visible Light Communication (VLC) (IEEE 802.15.7) |
Up to 6 m | Data transmission between two adjacent vehicles, although a stable communication link between the two vehicles is needed and since the distance between the transmitter and the receiver increases, the transmitted power must also increase; drawbacks can be eliminated by applying distant measurement sensors, e.g., LiDAR additional optical systems to boost the received power | [34,39] |
| Beaconing | Up to 5 m | Suitable for small amounts of safe data transmission and can be easily implementable; this type is used as an auxiliary means for other technologies, e.g., BLE, to periodically transmit data in the form of beacons with adjustable rate | [7,123] |
| ZigBee (IEEE 802.15.4) |
Up to 100 m | One of the common communication choices in smart parking systems; it can broadcast small amounts of data over a short range with a smaller energy consumption compared to Wi-Fi and, theoretically, up to 65 000 devices in a network can be managed; this technology finds it more difficult to penetrate obstacles compared to Wi-Fi, although this drawback may apply to tunnel communication | [65,71,128] |