Figure 3.

Pleiotropic effects of astaxanthin as a signaling molecule within the mitochondria. (A) Arrows from exogenous and endogenous sources denote suggested effect size on markers of interest for researchers; (B) Supplementing with endogenous and exogenous astaxanthin sources all markedly increase blood astaxanthin appearance; (C) Effects of astaxanthin on the mitochondria. The mitochondria are often only known as the ‘powerhouse’ of a cell due to the reliance on the mitochondria for adenosine triphosphate production. However, the mitochondria serve as an important focal point in improving cellular health and performance. An elevation in astaxanthin can contribute to the overall health of the mitochondria and astaxanthin has been shown to mitigate oxidative stress and upregulate antioxidant enzymes and anti-inflammatory transcription factors. These effects make astaxanthin a favorable metabolite for future projects with an aim to improve endurance performance in various populations. NLRP3, NOD-, LRR- and pyrin domain-containing protein-3; AMPK, AMP-activated protein kinase; FOXO1 and 3, forkhead box O1 and 3; Nrf2, nuclear factor-erythroid 2-related factor-2; PGC1-α, Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha.