Table 1.

Contextual details of studies included in the systematic review and meta-analysis

Study							Outcome			Exposure
Study (year) [citation]	Location	Design	Time Period	Number of Participants	Male (%)	Age (average (SD) or range, years)	UCa Type	Outcome	Number of Outcomes	Air Pollutants	Concentration (Average (SD) or range, μg/m3)	Assessment method
For systematic review and meta-analysis
Felici (2024)47	UK	Case-control	2006~	Cases: 53,270 Controls: 302,645	Cases: 46.6 Controls: 46.8	Cases: 63.76 Controls: 55.63	PCa BCa KCa	Incidence	PCa: 12,838 BCa: 1516 KCa: 1700	PM2.5 NO2 NOX PM10	NA	LUR
Fan (2023)29	China/Jiangsu	Ecological	2015–2020	PCa: 43,000,000 KCa/BCa: 84,700,000	50.8	NA	PCa BCa KCa	Mortality	PCa: 13,618 BCa:11,392 KCa: 5,820	PM2.5	60.3 (7.0)	Hybrid machine-learning prediction models &
Yu (2022) (2)27	Brazil	Ecological	2010–2016	KCa/BCa: 199,997,499 PCa/TCa:65,496,608	48	NA	PCa BCa KCa TCa	Mortality	PCa: 96,501 BCa:25,019 KCa: 21,018 TCa: 2054	Wildfire PM2.5	2.38 (1.62)	CTM
Hvidtfeldt (2022)45	Europe (Denmark, Sweden, Netherland, France, Austria)	Cohort	1985–2015	302,493	0-50 *	48.2 (13.4)	KCa	Incidence	847	PM2.5 NO2 O3 BC	PM2.5: 15.3 (8.6–19.2) NO2: 24.1 (12.8–39.2) O3: 87.0 (70.3–97.4) BC: 0.88 (0.385–1.155) #	LUR
Yu (2022)28	Brazil	Ecological	2010–2018	KCa/BCa: 147,514,042	NA	NA	PCa BCa KCa TCa	Mortality	PCa: 127,499 BCa:33,787 KCa: 28,625 TCa: 2802	PM2.5	7.63 (3.32)	CTM
Youogo (2022)44	Canada	Case-control	1975–1997	2844	100	cases: 66.7 (5.6) controls: 65.5 (6.4)	PCa	Incidence	1420	PM2.5 NO2	PM2.5: 11.9 (3.0) NO2: 29.14 (16.72)	Satellite
Taj (2022)41	Denmark	Case-control	1989–2014	25,387	100	≤40 (65%) ^	TCa	Incidence	6390	PM2.5 BC NO2 NO3 O3 SO2 SO4	PM2.5: 18.2 BC: 0.85 NO2: 21.75 NO3: 3.71 O3: 58.99 SO2: 13.63 SO4: 3.11	DEHM/UBM/AirGIS
Shin (2022)30	South Korea	Cohort	2005–2015	PCa: 47,159 BCa: 87,608 KCa: 87,608	53.8	46.58 (11.01)	PCa BCa KCa	Mortality	PCa: 36 BCa: 27 KCa: 38	PM2.5 PM10	NA	Kriging
Huang (2022)31	Taiwan	Cohort	2000–2015	189,549	100	39.5 (12.8)	PCa	Incidence	732	PM2.5	20.81	Satellite
Chen (2022)32	Europe (Sweden, Denmark, Netherland, France, Austria)	Cohort	1985–2015	302,493	0–50 *	41.7–72.5	BCa	Incidence	967	PM2.5 NO2 BC O3	PM2.5: 14.94 NO2: 24.86 BC: 1.672 O3: 85.44	LUR
Coleman (2020)34	USA	Cohort	1987–2014	PCa: 282,815 BCa: 635,539 KCa: 635,539	44.5	45.3	PCa BCa KCa	Mortality	PCa: 1215 BCa:589 KCa: 603	PM2.5	10.7 (2.4)	LUR
Coleman (2020) (2)46	USA	Ecological	1992–2016	35.4 million Δ	49.7	NA	PCa BCa KCa	Incidence	PCa: 1,151,454 BCa: 346,681 KCa: 254,706	PM2.5	11.5 (2.6)	LUR
Turner (2019)43	Spain	Case-control	1998–2001	1911	Cases: 88 Controls: 87	cases: 65.8 (9.7) controls: 64.7 (9.8)	BCa	Incidence	938	PM2.5 NO2	PM2.5: 15.8 (3.89) NO2: 28.6 (10.02)	LUR
Shekarrizfard (2018)40	Canada/Montreal	Case-control	2005–2009	1722	100	Cases: 65.0 (7.0)	PCa	Incidence	803	NO2	28.2	LUR
Gandini (2018)36	Italy	Cohort	1999–2008	74,989	47.3	35–65 (70.2%)	BCa KCa	Incidence	BCa: 501 KCa: 196	PM2.5 NO2	10-30 (NO2: 76.3%, PM2.5: 79.1%)	CTM
Pedersen (2018)37	Europe (Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Netherlands, England, Austria, Italy, Spain)	Cohort	1985– ~ 2010	NO2 /NOX: 303,431 Others: 263,634	21-55 *	48 (43–57) *	BCa	Incidence	NO2/NOX: 943 Others: 827	PM2.5 BC NO2 NOX PM10 PM2.5-10	PM2.5: 7.1-30.1 BC: 0.66–3.41 NO2: 5.2–53.2 NOX: 8.7–96.4 PM10: 13.5-46.4 PM2.5-10: 4.0–16.7 *	LUR
Datzmann (2018)35	German/Saxony	Cohort	2007–2014	1,918,449	46.8	49.33 (25.33)	PCa	Incidence	9611	PM10 NO2	PM2.5: 20.89 NO2: 20.44	LUR
Cohen (2018)33	Israel	Cohort	2004–2015	BCa: 9,816 PCa:7,509	44.7	68.2 (12.1)	BCa, PCa	Incidence	BCa: 74 PCa:122	NOX	37.24	LUR
Turner (2017)42	USA	Cohort	1982–2004	PCa: 278,455 BCa: 623,048 KCa: 623,048		40-69 (85%)	PCa BCa KCa	Mortality	PCa: 1068 BCa:1324 KCa: 927	PM2.5 NO2 O3	PM2.5: 12.6 (2.8) NO2: 21.62 (9.59) O3: 76.4 (8.0)	hybrid LUR and BME
Raaschou-Nielsen (2017)39	Europe (Sweden, Norway, Denmark, Netherlands, England, Austria, Italy, Spain)	Cohort	1985- ~ 2010	NO2 /NOX: 289,002 Others: 249,521	21-55 *	48 (43-57) *	KCa	Incidence	NO2 /NOX: 697 Others: 603	PM2.5 BC NO2 NOX PM10 PM2.5-10	PM2.5: 7.1–30.1 BC: 0.66–3.41 NO2: 5.2–53.2 NOX: 8.7–96.4 PM10: 13.5-46.4 PM2.5-10: 4.0–16.5 *	LUR
Raaschou-Nielsen (2011)38	Denmark	Cohort	1993–2006	PCa: 25,803 BCa: 53,234 KCa: 46,259	47.6	56.7	PCa BCa KCa	Incidence	PCa: 673 BCa:221 KCa: 95	NOX	28.4	DEHM/UBM/AirGIS
For systematic review only ¶
Lim (2023)62	Australia	Cohort	1996–2018	11,627	100	72.1 (4.4)	BCa	Incidence	224	PM2.5 BC NO2	PM2.5: 5.06 (1.68) BC: 1.07 (0.30) NO2: 13.42 (4.09)	LUR
Park (2023)61	Korea	Cohort	2005–2018	231,997	77.3	≥65 (49.5%)	PCa KCa UTCa UCa	Incidence	PCa: 28,440 KCa: 9,736 UTCa: 12,501 UCa: 50,677	PM10	56.24	Monitoring stations
Dummer (2023)63	Canada	Case-control	2005–2011	1022	NA	>20	UCa	Incidence	219	NO2 SO2 PM1.0 PM2.5	NO2: 10.90 (3.95) SO2:0.79 (0.79) PM1.0: 2.7 (0.2) PM2.5: 3.1 (0.3)	Monitoring stations/LUR
Wei (2023)60	USA	Cohort	2000–2016	2,161,156	100	75–84 (88.8%)	PCa	Incidence	80,615	NO2 PM2.5	NO2: 32.52 (0-239.89) PM2.5:9.8 (0–30.9)	GWR†
Wang (2019)55	China	Ecological	2000–2011	44.4 million	100	NA	PCa	Incidence & Mortality	NA	PM2.5	36–60 (91%) <35 (9%)	Satellite
Collarile (2017) @53	Italy	Ecological	1995–2009	NA	NA	NA	BCa	Incidence	650	PM10 NO2 SO2	PM10: 19.6–107.1 NO2: 10.8–25.5 SO2: 27.5–85.0	SPRAY v3
Weichenthal (2017)57	Canada/Montreal	Case-control	2005–2009	2486	100	NA	PCa	Incidence	1240	ultrafine particles	24,263/m3	LUR
Cohen (2017) §52	Israel	Cohort	1992–2013	1393	81	54 (8)	UCa	Incidence & Mortality	Incidence:262 Mortality:105 $	NOx	45.9 (17.2, 160.7)	LUR
Yeh (2017)51	Taiwan	Ecological	2000–2012	NA	NA	NA	BCa	Mortality	NA	PM2.5	NA	Kriging
Wong (2016)49	Hong Kong	Cohort	1998–2001	66,820	35	≥65	UCa	Mortality	155	PM2.5	PM2.5: 33.7 (3.2)	Satellite
Ancona (2015) @48	Italy/Rome	Cohort	2001–2010	85,559	48.4	5–106	KCa BCa	Incidence & Mortality	KCa: 164 (I), 54 (M) BCa: 477 (I), 73 (M)	SOx PM10	SOx:1.67 PM10: 2*10−5	SPRAY v5
Shekarrizfard (2015)56	Canada/Montreal	Case-control	2005–2008	1722	100	Cases: 65.0 (7.0)	PCa	Incidence	803	NO2 NOx	NO2: 14.87 NOX: 788.84 g	LUR
Parent (2013)58	Canada/Montreal	Case-control	2005–2008	1772	100	Cases: 65.0 (7.0)	PCa	Incidence	803	NO2	controls: 22.20 (5.08) cases: 22.75 (5.25)	LUR
AI-Ahmadi (2013)50	Saudi Arabia	Ecological	1998–2004	NA	NA	NA	BCa PCa	Incidence	NA	NO2	NA	Satellite
Yanagi (2012)59	Brazil	Ecological	1997–2005	NA	NA	NA	BCa	Incidence & Mortality	NA	PM10	NA	Monitoring stations
Liu (2009)54	Taiwan	Case-control	1995–2005	1360	Cases/controls: 67.8	50–69	BCa	Mortality	680	PM10 NO2 O3 CO SO2	PM10: ≤90.29 NO2: ≤84.32 O3: ≤71.4 CO: ≤3.42 SO2: ≤46.82	Monitoring stations

^&This model integrates ground measurement data, satellite remote sensing products, and atmospheric reanalysis data.

*Range across cohorts.

^#median (5-95% percentile).

^65% of participants in the study were younger than 40 years old.

^ΔBased on the Surveillance, Epidemiology, and End Results (SEER)website (https://seer.cancer.gov/registries/data.html), the SEER 12 data covers roughly 12.2% of the US population. In 2016, the US population was 323.1 million, and in 1992, the US population was 256.9 million. Here, the average population between 1992-2016 is applied.

^¶Included in the systematic review, but did not provide association estimates that could be included in the meta-analysis (i.e., spatial analysis, combined estimates for various cancer types with no specific estimates by UCa type, air pollution from special pollution sources).

^@The environmental air pollutants included the source of nearby incinerators or coal-fired and oil-thermal power plants.

^§The study population focused on survivors of myocardial infarction.

^$These are numbers of all cancer types.

^†Geographically weighted regressions that ensembled predictions from random forests, gradient boosting, and neural network

BCa bladder cancer; BME Bayesian maximum entropy interpolation model, CTM chemical transport model, DEHM Danish Eulerian Hemispheric Model, KCa kidney cancer, LUR land use regression, NA not available, PCa prostate cancer, SD standard deviation, TCa testicular cancer, UTCa urothelial cancer, UCa urological cancer, UBM Urban Background Model, GWR geographically weighted regression.