Figure 2.

Illustration representing the probable site of action of bioactive polyphenols. Upon exposure to harmful particles and pathogens, macrophages are activated, triggering the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., IL-6, TNF-α) and reactive oxygen species. This cascade activates the NF-κB pathway and immune response genes, resulting in airway inflammation, structural remodeling, and lung damage, ultimately culminating in COPD. The figure was designed by Biorender.com program (https://biorender.com/, accessed on 20 March 2024).