Table 5.

Ginger’s antioxidant and anti-inflammatory immunomodulators.

Intervention form	Study type	Subject	Dose	Results	Reference
Ginger Extract (ethanol)	In vitro	HepG2 cells	100 μg/mL	Inhibits ROS production, DNA damage, and cell death	(43)
	In vivo	Male wistar	250 mg/kg	Increases antioxidant enzyme activity and regulates the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway
Ginger Extract (water)	In vivo	Wistar albino male	300 mg/kg	Prevent oxidative stress, and improve the expression of COX-2, iNOS, and NF-κB p65	(44)
Ginger Extract (dimethyl sulfoxide)	In vitro	Chondrocytes C28I2	25 μg/mL	Increases gene expression on antioxidant enzymes, inhibits ROS production, lipid peroxidation, Bax/Bcl-2 ratio, and caspase-3 activity	(45)
Ginger Extract (water)	In vivo	Wistar albino male	24 mg/mL	Reduces cell damage by increasing T3, T4, and antioxidant enzymes (SOD, CAT), lowering MDA	(46)
Ginger Extract (ethanol)	In vivo	Wistar albino male	800 mg/kg	Decreased levels of MDA and protein carbonyl, increased levels of GSH, SOD, and CAT activity, decreased levels of TNF-α, IL-1β IL-6, caspase-3, and cytochrome c	(47)
Ginger Extract (water)	In vivo	Albino male	216 mg/kg	Lowers IL-1β, TNF-α, MDA, and NOx levels, increases GSH	(48)
Ginger Extract (water)	In vivo	C57BL6/J mice	50 mg/mL	Inhibits TNF-α production	(49)
Ginger Extract (water)	In vitro	RBC	500 μg/mL	Inhibits proteinase and anti-lipoxygenase activity	(50)
	In vivo	Sprague dawley male	200 mg/kg	Decreased PGE2, TNF-α, IL-6, MCP-1, and MPO. Increase antioxidant activity
Ginger extract (ethanol)	In vivo	BALB/c female mice	100 mg/kg	Inhibits NF-κB activity and lowers IL-1β levels	(51)
Ginger oleoresin	In vitro	hMSCs	1–4 g/mL	Prevents cell damage through inhibition of ROS production, triggers Nrf2 translocation, activates HO-1 and NQO1 gene expression	(52)
Ginger Juice	In vivo	Male wistar	5 mL/kg	Reduced expression of iNOS and NF-κB as well as levels of NO, TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β	(53)
Ginger Tea	Ex vivo	Chicken liver tissue	100 mL 2.5%	Inhibits fat peroxidation, and suppresses free radicals	(54)