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. Author manuscript; available in PMC: 2026 Apr 1.
Published in final edited form as: Behav Med. 2023 Dec 19;51(2):164–173. doi: 10.1080/08964289.2023.2290485

Figure 1.

Figure 1.

Conceptual model of the indirect association (ab) of pain intensity on quit problems, barriers to cessation, and negative reinforcement smoking consequences through pain avoidance.

Note: N = 95; * p < .05. a path = Effect of X on M; b paths = Effect of M on Yi; c paths = Total effect of X on Yi; c’ paths = Direct effect of X on Yi controlling for M. Three separate paths were conducted (Y1–3) with the predictor (X). Covariates included in the establishment of paths included: Age and Sex.