Table 2.
Characteristics of the 20 studies included in the present review and their main results.
| Author | Country | Sample | Measurement | Analysis | Main results | Therapy type | HbA1c | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Armstrong et al. (2011) | USA | Children with diabetes (N = 84) and their parents. Age 9–11 years. | - Diabetes family behaviour checklist | Correlation. | Children who reported critical parenting behaviours tended to have lower self-efficacy and more depressive symptoms. | Pump-daily injection | 8.1% | ||
| - Self-efficacy for diabetes questionnaire | |||||||||
| - Child depression inventory | |||||||||
| - Child version of the self-care inventory | |||||||||
| Barzel & Reid (2011) | Canada | Children with diabetes (N = 61) and their parents. Age 8–12 years. | - 14-Item Co-parenting questionnaire | Correlation | Co-parenting conflicts were observed whenever children internalised or externalised their problems. | - | 8.1% | ||
| - 14 items on the diabetes-specific Co- parenting questionnaire | |||||||||
| - Child behaviour checklist | |||||||||
| - Self-care inventory | |||||||||
| - Pediatric quality of life inventory diabetes module | |||||||||
| - Glycaemia and blood measurement HbA1c | |||||||||
| Cohen et al. (2004) | USA | Children with diabetes (N = 116) and their parents. Age 6–17 years | - Child behaviour checklist | Correlations, ancova and multivariate Analysis | High levels of family cohesion predicted good adherence and better control of glycaemia. | - | 4.8–17.9% | ||
| - Family adaptability and cohesion | |||||||||
| Evaluation scales | |||||||||
| - Adherence measures from medical chart | |||||||||
| - Glycaemia and blood measurement HbA1c | |||||||||
| Feeley et al. (2019) | USA | Children with diabetes (N = 18) and their parents. Age 6–12 years | -Pediatric fatigue short form | Correlations | Parents showed poor sleep quality in pittsburgh sleep quality. There was a significant correlation between children sleep and parent as measured by actigraphy | - | 7.52 ± 0.75 | ||
| -PROMIS pediatric anxiety short form | |||||||||
| - Pittsburgh sleep quality index | |||||||||
| - PROMIS sleep disturbance short form | |||||||||
| - Perceived stress scale | |||||||||
| - Center for epidemiological studies depression scale | |||||||||
| - Sleep diary | |||||||||
| - Actigraph sleep measure | |||||||||
| Gruhn et al. (2016) | USA | Children with diabetes (N = 93) and their mother. Age 10–16 years. | - Iowa family interaction rating scales | t-test, correlations, and regression Analyses. | Lower HbA1c counts were related to higher levels of collaborative parenting. Significantly greater child depressive symptoms after 1 year were linked to higher levels of observed overinvolved parenting. | Pump-daily injection | 5.4–12.9% | ||
| - Child depression inventory | |||||||||
| - Centre for epidemiologic studies of depression scale | |||||||||
| - Responses to stress questionnaire | |||||||||
| - State trait anxiety inventory | |||||||||
| - Glycaemia and blood measurement HbA1c. | |||||||||
| Jaser et al. (2008) | USA | Children with diabetes (N = 108) and their mother. Age 8–12 years. | - Children’s depression inventory | Linear Regression analyses and correlations. | There was a correlation between the maternal and depressive symptoms of the children | Pump-daily injection | 7.0% | ||
| - Issues in coping with IDDM—child scale | |||||||||
| - Diabetes quality of life scale for youth | |||||||||
| - Diabetes family behaviour scale | |||||||||
| - Center for epidemiologic depression scale. | |||||||||
| - Diabetes | |||||||||
| - Responsibility and conflict scale | |||||||||
| - Family adaptability and cohesion scale | |||||||||
| - Glycaemia and blood measurement HbA1c. | |||||||||
| Jaser and Grey (2010) | USA | Children with diabetes (N = 30) and their mother. Age 10–16 years. | - Responsibility and conflict scale | Correlation | Mothers’ symptoms of depression and anxiety were linked to a low level of child-centred parenting. | Pump-daily injection | 5.5–13.4% | ||
| - Iowa family interaction rating scales | |||||||||
| - Center for epidemiologic studies of depression scale | |||||||||
| - State trait anxiety inventory | |||||||||
| - Child depression inventory | |||||||||
| - Paediatric quality of life inventory | |||||||||
| - Glycaemia and blood measurement HbA1c. | |||||||||
| Jaser et al. (2014) | USA | Children with diabetes (N = 118) and their parents. Age 10–16 years. | - Responsibility and conflict scale | Anova and linear regression analyses. | - Secondary control coping interposed in the relationship between depression, maternal symptoms of anxiety, and diabetes related stress. There was no significant association between children’s outcomes and maternal coping. | Pump-daily injection | 5.4–12.9% | ||
| - Centre for epidemiologic studies depression scale | |||||||||
| - State trait anxiety inventory | |||||||||
| - Paediatric quality of life inventory | |||||||||
| - Child depression inventory | |||||||||
| - Haemoglobin HbA1c | |||||||||
| Jabbour et al., (2016) | Canada | Children with diabetes (N = 201) and their parents. Age two groups; younger than 12 years, 12 years of age or older | - Barriers to physical activity in type 1 diabetes scale | Correlations and 2-way analysis of variance. | - Fear of hypoglycaemia, external temperature, work schedule, and loss of control of diabetes had the highest barrier scores among children younger than 12 years. The lower barrier scores were associated with greater parental support for both younger and older children. | - | - | ||
| Jaser et al. (2017) | USA | Children with diabetes (N = 515) and their parents. Age 2 – 12 years. | - Child sleep habits questionnaire | Separate multivariable linear Regression and separate multivariable logistic regression. | Poor glycaemic control was related to the child’s sleep quality. Poorer sleep quality in children was associated with parental well-being; fear of hypoglycaemia; and poorer parental sleep quality. | Pump-daily injection | 7.8 ± 0.9% | ||
| - Pittsburgh sleep quality index | |||||||||
| - Self-reported HbA1c values | |||||||||
| Michaud et al. (2017) | Canada | Children with diabetes (N = 188) and their parents. Age 6–17 years | - Barriers to physical activity in type 1 diabetes scale | Chi-square, Mann–Whitney-Wilcoxon tests, and linear Regression. | The relations between the components were not significant. The hypoglycaemia phobia was the only barrier to physical activity. | Pump-daily injection | - | ||
| - Health measures survey | |||||||||
| - World health organization norms on metabolic equivalent task | |||||||||
| - Parents own PA habits | |||||||||
| - Glycaemia and blood measurement HbA1c | |||||||||
| Moreira et al. (2014) | Portugal | Children with diabetes (N = 88) and their parents. Children without diabetes (N= 121) and their parents. Age 8–18 years. | - Paediatric health-related | Anova and two-way manova. | Higher levels of cohesion were linked to higher HRQOL ratings in children with diabetes and lower scores of parental stress. Parents of children with diabetes felt more stress, anxiety, and perceived less cohesion compared to parents of healthy children. | - | 7.9% | ||
| Quality of life measurement | |||||||||
| - Self-report version of the DISABKIDS chronic | |||||||||
| Generic module | |||||||||
| - Family environment scale | |||||||||
| - Hospital anxiety and depression scale | |||||||||
| - Portuguese version of the | |||||||||
| Parenting stress index—short form | |||||||||
| - Glycaemia and blood measurement HbA1c | |||||||||
| Mullins et al. (2004) | USA | Children with diabetes (N = 43) and their parents. Age 8–12 years. | - Single 7- point likert scale | Correlations and multiple Regression. | High levels of depressive symptoms were related to two factors, child vulnerability and parenting stress. | - | 5–14% | ||
| - Parent protection scale | |||||||||
| - Child vulnerability scale | |||||||||
| - Parenting stress scale | |||||||||
| - Child depression inventory | |||||||||
| Patton et al. (2011) | USA | Children with diabetes (N = 39) and their parents. Age 0–7 years | - Behavioural paediatric feeding assessment scale | Correlations, and linear regression analyses. | Higher parenting stress was associated with a higher stress frequency, higher depressive symptoms, fear of hypoglycaemia, and greater mealtime issues. | Pump-daily injection | 8.6 ± 1.3% | ||
| - Paediatric inventory for parents | |||||||||
| - Hypoglycaemia fear survey-parents of young children | |||||||||
| - Beck depression inventory-second edition | |||||||||
| Sweenie et al. (2014) | USA | Children with diabetes (N = 86) and their parents. Age 9–11 years. | - The eyberg child behaviour inventory | Hierarchical linear regressions. | Parents, who reported their child’s psychological behaviour as more problematic, also stated more difficulty with paediatric parenting stress. | Pump-daily injection | 8.1% | ||
| - Diabetes family behaviour checklist | |||||||||
| - Paediatric inventory for parents | |||||||||
| - Glycaemia and blood measurement HbA1c | |||||||||
| Troncone et al. (2017) | Italy | Children with diabetes (N = 25) and their parents. Age 1–18 years. | - Patient’s health-related quality of life 3.0 DM | Anova. | - The patients were found to have lower global diabetes-specific problems and better experience. | Daily injection | 5.7–9.7% | ||
| - Parent’s perceived burden | - Parents described the treatment to be linked to treatment satisfaction. | ||||||||
| Viaene et al. (2017) | Belgium | Children with diabetes (N = 63) and their parents. Age 2–18 years. | - The Nijmegen parenting stress index-short form | Correlation, and mancova. | Results showed an indirect association between HbA1c values and parental FoH through parenting stress. | Pump-daily injection | 8.2% | ||
| - Parent’s fear of hypoglycaemia scale | |||||||||
| - Children’s fear of hypoglycaemia scale | |||||||||
| - Glycaemia and blood measurement HbA1c | |||||||||
| Van Gampelaere et al. (2020) | Belgium | Children with diabetes (N = 105) and their parents. Age 2–12 years Children without diabetes (N = 414) and their parents. | - Child quality of life/Quality of life Inventory-4.0 | Ancova | Children with type 1 diabetes (8–12 years) had higher quality of life compared with children without diabetes. Mothers of children with type 1 diabetes showed more anxiety and depressive stress than their counterparts with children without diabetes. | Pump-daily injection | <7.5%(78) >7.5%(27) | ||
| - Strengths and difficulties questionnaire | |||||||||
| - Perceived stress scale | |||||||||
| - The patient-reported outcomes measurement information system (PROMIS) for anxiety and depression] | |||||||||
| - Parental overprotection measure | |||||||||
| - The autonomy support scale | |||||||||
| Whittemore et al. (2003) | USA | Children with diabetes (N = 56) and their parents. Age 8–12 years. | - Diabetes quality of life youth | Correlations, and regression Analyses. | Families who found coping with diabetes less upsetting had children who reported a better quality of life. Children with diabetes type 1 who experienced a better quality of life reported fewer depression symptoms. | Pump-daily injection | 7.4% | ||
| - Child depression inventory | |||||||||
| - Issue in coping with IDDM- child version scale | |||||||||
| - The diabetes family behaviour scale | |||||||||
| - Centre for epidemiologic studies of depression scale | |||||||||
| - Haemoglobin A1c. | |||||||||
| Wilson et al. (2009) | USA | Children with diabetes (N = 46) and their parents. Age 5–12 years. | - The eyberg child behaviour inventory | Correlations and multiple regression. | Over-reactive parental discipline was associated with common child mealtime misbehaviour, and it was also linked to reports of less time spent managing child’s illness. | - | - | ||
| - Parenting scale | |||||||||