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Animal Frontiers: The Review Magazine of Animal Agriculture logoLink to Animal Frontiers: The Review Magazine of Animal Agriculture
. 2024 Jun 20;14(3):17–27. doi: 10.1093/af/vfae009

Herbal paw-sibilities: potential use and challenges of Astragalus membranaceus and Panax species (ginseng) in diets intended for cats and dogs

Júlia Guazzelli Pezzali 1,b,✉, Anna K Shoveller 2
PMCID: PMC11188985  PMID: 38910952

Implications.

  • Astragalus membranaceus roots, and other plant parts, may possess benefits for gut health, the immune system, and antioxidant status.

  • Panax species (sp.) products, commonly known as ginseng, may contribute to physical performance, cognition, and overall metabolism.

  • Standardization and characterization of herbal products are imperative to determine their safety and efficacy.

  • Empirical studies in domestic dog and cat are necessary to validate the potential health benefits and determine the safety of A. membranaceus and Panax sp. products before introducing them into the diet of these species.

Introduction

Traditional Chinese herbs (TCH) have served as a fundamental component of traditional Chinese medicine for thousands of years within eastern Asian culture. These herbs have been utilized either individually or in combinations to prevent, treat, and even cure diseases, as well as reduce or eliminate disease symptoms (Liu et al., 2015). Practical use of TCH involves the application of principles such as yin–yang, exterior–interior, cold–heat, and deficiency–excess to diagnose an illness for which the prescription of specific herbs or herbal mixtures (fang ji) is the treatment. The use of TCH, however, is not solely restricted to botanical drugs. While some TCH are also commonly used simply as food condiments, the heightened awareness and emphasis on using food as a preventive measure against diseases and to provide health benefits have expanded the use of TCH. They are integrated into dietary supplements and included in whole foods as functional ingredients, and support specific biological structures and/or functions based on their phytochemical modes of action. Currently, there are more than a hundred herbs that are approved in China by the China Food and Drug Administration to be used in health food products with specific health claims permitted for use in health products (e.g., antioxidants, enhance immune function, stimulate digestion).

The use of TCH has gained popularity in Western culture and is not unfamiliar to many people, although most may not realize that the herbs they consume are classified as TCH. For example, mint (Menta), turmeric (Curcuma longa), and ginger (Zingiber officinale) are TCH commonly used as food condiments and can also be found over-the-counter as dietary supplements to support specific bodily functions. For instance, ginger in various forms (e.g., whole plant vs. roots) is available as a dietary supplement in different formats (e.g., tablets vs. capsules), often marketed with claims of supporting digestive health. Some other less popular TCH can also be found commercially available as human dietary supplements, such as Astragalus membranaceus roots and ginseng (Panax sp.), with a wide range of healthy claims associated with them (e.g., “overall wellbeing”, “immune support”, “digestive support”, “supports memory”, and “boost energy and performance”). The use of certain TCH, provided individually or as herbal mix, also sparked interest in the diet of livestock as feed additives, particularly as an antibiotic alternative in animal feed (Gong et al., 2014). On the other hand, the integration of TCH in the diets of dogs and cats has yet to gain substantial traction.

While certain TCH that are more widely accepted in Western culture are occasionally found in commercial pet diets, and more recently the use of mushrooms (e.g., Reishi [Ganoderma lingzhi]) in dietary supplements for dogs and cats, more commonly used TCH are currently permitted as color additives, such as turmeric, or as spices and natural seasonings and flavorings, including basil, cassia, chives, fennel, paprika, peppermint, and oregano, in commercial pet food in the United States (AAFCO, 2024). Nonetheless, the potential functional benefits of some TCH that have not been explored for use in pet foods; despite the fact that pet owners seek similar benefits for their pets as they do for themselves. Additionally, the rising popularity of functional ingredients in the pet food industry, coupled with the projected growth of the pet nutraceuticals market surpassing 2.5 billion dollars from 2023 to 2029, reinforces the need to consider TCH within the pet industry (Figure 1; Mordor Intelligence, 2023). In this context, A. membranaceus and ginseng (Panax sp.), among various herbs, have received more extensive exploration as a dietary additive, as part of the diet matrix or as supplements, in livestock feed and human food. Consequently, reviewing the scientific literature regarding the use of these herbs may serve as the initial step in comprehending the potential health benefits of A. membranaceus and ginseng (Panax sp.), as well as their possible applications as dietary ingredients for dogs and cats. Thus, the aim of this manuscript is to discuss the health benefits and potential detrimental effects of A. membranaceus and ginseng (Panax sp.) that have been documented in the literature, as well as to discuss the challenges associated with their inclusion in the pet food industry and data needed prior to their widespread use for pets.

Figure 1.

Figure 1.

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Pet nutraceutical market size estimation for 2023 with a compound annual growth rate of 7.12% during the forecast period (2023 to 2029). Adapted from Mordor Intelligence (2023).

Astragalus membranaceus

Astragalus membranaceus, among the most prevalent Chinese herbs, is a perennial legume extensively cultivated in northern Korea, Siberia, and China. The plant predominantly consists of tall, hairy stems (ranging from 50 to 80 cm) with leaves and inflorescence. Traditionally, the dried root of A. membranaceus, also referred to as Astragali radix or huangqi, is used as a medicine and tonic food material (i.e., a substance capable of restoring and/or maintaining a physiological function). Once the aerial parts, fibrous roots, and impurities are removed, the root is dried and may undergo various extraction and purification processes to isolate its biologically active compounds. Polysaccharides, saponins, flavonoids, amino acids, glycosides, alkaloids, organic compounds, and trace elements constitute the primary classes of chemical compounds present in A. membranaceus. Among these, the health-promoting benefits are largely linked to Astragalus polysaccharides, whose structural features and biological activities were extensively reviewed by Jin et al. (2014).

In traditional Chinese medicine, A. membranaceus is recognized for its adaptogenic properties, described as inducing “a state of nonspecifically increased resistance” (Brekhman and Dardymov, 1969). This herb is employed in treating ailments attributed to ‘Qi-deficiency’ (vital energy depletion), often manifested through symptoms such as weakness, diarrhea, reduced appetite, fatigue, increased susceptibility to infections, and other indicators of compromised health. On the Western market, A. membranaceus is available as a food supplement in various forms including raw roots, teas, liquid extract, powders, and capsules, primarily aimed at bolstering immune system function (Wei, 2015). The use of A. membranaceus as a feed additive to replace antibiotics in animal production has been investigated and some studies have reported positive effects of A. membranaceus on feed efficiency, gut health, immune response, and antioxidant capacity in different species as discussed next (Figure 2).

Figure 2.

Figure 2.

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Illustration of the A. membranaceus plant highlighting the utilization of its dried root as a dietary supplement, showcasing the most prominent bioactive compounds and their potential health benefits. The concentration and activity of the bioactive compounds largely depend on the plant’s growth conditions, the form of which the product is prepared, and the extraction method utilized. Created with BioRender.com.

Gut health

The use of A. membranaceus as a feed additive for weaned piglets has been previously investigated due to the compromised digestive function of piglets; herein, when A. membranaceus stems and leaves (2,500 to 7,500 mg/kg diet) were fed for 28 dto newly weaned piglets a reduction in the frequency of diarrhea compared to the control treatment was observed (Adams et al., 2018). Astragalus membranaceus polysaccharides have also been reported to improve digestive and absorptive function. Yin et al. (2009) observed an improvement in the apparent ileal digestibility of amino acids and greater serum concentrations in weaned piglets fed A. membranaceus polysaccharides (1,000 mg/kg diet). These results might due to an improvement in the integrity of the small intestine and a beneficial modulation of the microbiome in favor of digestion of dietary protein and absorption of amino acids. Indeed, an increase in jejunal villus height was observed in lipopolysaccharide-challenged piglets fed with A. membranaceus polysaccharides (800 mg/kg diet) compared to lipopolysaccharide-challenged piglets fed placebo (Wang et al., 2020). Additionally, the inclusion of A. membranaceus polysaccharides in the diet of chicks (220 mg/kg diet) resulted in a beneficial modulation of the microbiota in the digesta in the ileum and cecum (Li et al., 2009). The authors also reported a synergistic effect of A. membranaceus polysaccharides and probiotics, which may be an indication of its prebiotic effect. In young hens, A. membranaceus root (5,000 mg/kg diet) also impacts the fecal microbiome, likely due to greater fermentation in the large intestine (Qiao et al., 2018). Astragalus membranaceus polysaccharides may be used as a substrate by the intestinal bacteria, leading to the aforementioned benefits on gut health as reviewed by Song et al. (2021). However, the exact underlying mechanism by which A. membranaceus acts as a potential modifier of intestinal integrity and gut microbiota deserves further investigation.

Lipid metabolism

Astragalus membranaceus may also have an impact on lipid metabolism. Pan et al. (2017) observed a decrease in triacylglycerol and total cholesterol (in plasma and liver), decreased plasma low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and reduced liver weight when the dried root of A. membranaceus (100 to 150 mg/kg diet) was given to rats fed a high-fat diet. Similarly, Hao et al. (2020) observed a quadric decrease of triacylglycerol when A. membranaceus roots were fed to finishing lambs; with the greatest effect at 10 g/kg of diet as-fed. Although the dried roots of A. membranaceus have been more widely investigated, the byproduct of A. membranaceus was also able to decrease plasma concentrations of cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (100 g/kg diet as-fed; Abdallah et al., 2019) in sheep. Likely, the dietary soluble A. membranaceus polysaccharides reduced intestinal cholesterol absorption resulting in lower plasma concentrations of cholesterol. However, other bioactive compounds may also play a role in the modulation of lipid metabolism. For example, isoflavones from A. membranaceus are reported to be activators of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors α and γ, which are transcription factors that regulate lipid metabolism (Shen et al., 2006). Thus, dogs experiencing hyperlipidemia or in positive energy balance may benefit from dietary supplementation of A. membranaceus; however, its effect on lipid metabolism, the adequate dose, and interactions with dietary compounds has yet to be determined.

Immune function

The antioxidant and immunomodulatory properties of A. membranaceus have been previously noted. Li et al. (2009) observed an improvement om the immunity of chicks fed A. membranaceus polysaccharides (200 mg/kg diet), specifically antibody titer for Newcastle disease (indicator humoral immunity), T-lymphocyte percentage (indicator of cellular immunity) and the relative weight of immune organs were greater compared to the control group. Increased immunoglobulins (e.g., IgG) and/or interleukins (e.g., IL-2) were also reported in weaned piglets (75 g of A. membranaceus fiber/kg diet in Che et al. 2019; 200 mg/kg of A. membranaceus polysaccharides/kg in Li et al., 2018) fed products of A. membranaceus. Reduced immunological stress was also observed when extracts of A. membranaceus polysaccharides (800 mg/kg diet, greater serum immunoglobulin; Wang et al., 2020) and β-glucans (500 mg/kg diet, lower concentrations of inflammatory cytokines; Mao et al., 2005) were supplemented in diets of immune-challenged piglets. In immune-suppressed dogs, intravenous injection of A. membranaceus polysaccharides (200 mg/kg body weight [BW]) enhanced the cell-mediated immune response (Qiu et al., 2010). However, results are not consistent, as no effect of A. membranaceus supplementation on immune function has been reported (Abdallah et al., 2019). This could be attributed to the supplementation of A. membranaceus at suboptimal levels, variations in its nutritional composition, and differences in experimental conditions across studies. It is important to consider that A. membranaceus may act synergically with other herbs. While Kang et al. (2010) did not observe an effect of A. membranaceus polysaccharides (500 mg/kg diet) on immunoglobulin and interleukin production, a mixture of A. membranaceus polysaccharides and Achyranthes bidentata (250 mg/kg diet each) positively impacted those parameters and highlights the need for extensive research on single and mixed TCH in the diet of dogs and cats.

Oxidative stress

Free radicals, which are involved in the pathogenesis of some diseases, are naturally generated during metabolic reactions; however, some conditions (e.g., exercise) increase their production. Thus, antioxidant defense mechanisms are crucial for modulating the metabolic response to an exaggerated oxidative stress event. Biological compounds present in A. membranaceus may possess antioxidant properties. Dietary supplementation of A. membranaceus polysaccharides (up to 200 mg/kg BW) increased the activity of superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and catalase, and decrease the concentrations of malondialdehyde in skeletal muscle of rats undergoing exhaustive exercise regimens (Deng et al., 2011). Astragalus membranaceus root extract (up to 80 mg/kg dry matter intake) also increased serum concentrations of superoxide dismutase in weaned yak calves (Wei et al., 2021) and sheep (Wang et al., 2021). In broiler chickens, dietary supplementation of A. membranaceus root powder (5,000 mg/kg diet) improved serum antioxidant status (Zhang et al., 2013). However, Wang et al. (2010) observed only mild responses of A. membranaceus polysaccharides (350 mg/kg diet) and A. membranaceus root (up to 15,000 mg/kg diet) supplementation on antioxidant status in chickens. Again, more research is required to understand the factors contributing to biological responses to A. membranaceus before considering its addition to the diets of dogs and cats.

Antinutritional factors

While the potential biological activities of phytochemicals found in A. membranaceus have been documented, it is important to note that some of these compounds can have antinutritional effects if consumed in high amounts. For instance, saponins have the potential to inhibit the activity of digestive enzymes such as amylase, trypsin, chymotrypsin, and lipase, thereby reducing nutrient absorption in the intestines and leading to digestive-related disorders (Birari and Bhutani, 2007). This may partly explain the lack of response when A. membranaceus products were provided in high doses to lambs (30 g/kg of diet; Hao et al., 2020), or the negative effect on feed efficiency. These effects vary based on both the dosage and duration of supplementation, and they can differ among species. This underscores the need for dose–response studies to determine the optimal inclusion level for the specific product for the species under consideration.

The use of other parts of Astragalus membranaceus

It is of note that the biological responses will depend on the parts of A. membranaceus, the extraction method, and the processing conditions used to produce the final additive. For example, A. membranaceus root ground to 6.32 µm particle size was more effective in enhancing the expression of specific microbial peptides in pigs compared to 180 µm (Tu et al., 2006). Similarly, Zhang et al. (2013) reported that the efficacy of A. membranaceus root powder increased linearly as its particle size decreased from 300 to 37 µm suggesting greater bioaccessibility with a smaller particle size. Although A. membranaceus roots and their extracts (e.g., A. membranaceus polysaccharides) are more commonly used, the leaves and byproducts of A. membranaceus may also be considered as a sustainable option while still promoting health benefits. These byproducts from the harvesting process are usually combusted if left unused, contributing to environmental pollution, as other parts of the plant (e.g., root) serve as the primary raw material for dietary supplementation. Samuel et al. (2021) reported that dry leaves and tea from A. membranaceus contained more bioactive compounds, and stronger antioxidant and antimicrobial activities compared to the root. With regards to Astragalus byproduct, no adverse effects were observed in sheep fed the byproduct (10% to 15% dietary inclusion on dry matter basis) while still observing beneficial effects on rumen fermentation and lipid metabolism (Abdallah et al., 2019). Thus, while more studies are necessary to understand the dietary use of A. membranaceus byproducts, they are a promising sustainable alternative that deserves further investigation.

Safety

The aforementioned studies conducted in livestock species did not report adverse effects of oral intake of A. membranaceus products. Astragalus membranaceus is considered safe by most published reports, but adverse reactions have been reported, with skin reactions being the most common (Wei, 2015). However, adverse reactions are uncommon and depend on the dose, extract, and route of administration. A commercial product containing A. membranaceus and P. notoginseng extracts has been considered safe in humans by the European Food Safety Authority Panel on Nutrition, Novel Foods and Food Allergens (EFSA NDA Panel et al., 2020). However, it is important to note that different extracts and parts of A. membranaceus used alone or in combination with other herbs may have different effects, and therefore, each specific product or extract should be individually evaluated.

Potential applications in dog and cat diets

Some of the benefits of A. membranaceus sought after in other species are commonly desired in the diets of dogs and cats. The potential polysaccharides of A. membranaceus and their impact on gut health, as well as their overall effect on nutrient digestibility, are promising areas of study, given their prominence as top trends in the pet food industry. Additionally, A. membranaceus may support claims related to the immune system, and its potential antioxidant properties may benefit dogs and cats during the stress challenges they face in their daily routines, especially in more specific dog populations such as sporting dogs, who undergo events accompanied by higher levels of oxidative stress. However, the impact of oxidative stress from exercise on health remains a topic of debate. Further investigation into the long-term effects of A. membranaceus on metabolism is warranted. Nevertheless, as discussed above, more research on the role of A. membranaceus in these outcomes in dogs and cats is necessary to test these hypotheses, and the challenges regarding antinutritional factors and product standardization should be considered.

Panax spp.

Ginseng refers to all perennial plants (at least 11 species) of the genus Panax. It is a popular herb native to China and Korea (P. ginseng C.A. Meyer), Vietnam (e.g., P. vietnamensis), and Himalaya (P. pseuginseng) that has been used in eastern Asian culture for thousands of years. There are also ginseng species indigenous to both Canada and the United States (P. quinquefolium), which will be referred to as North American ginseng in this manuscript, while ginseng will be referred to all species from the genus Panax. Similar to A. membranaceus, ginseng is also considered an adaptogen herb; however, P. ginseng C.A. Meyer and North American ginseng are considered complementary, with the former strengthening yang and the latter yin in traditional Chinese medicine.

Ginseng is a tall plant (60 to 80 cm) with a 5- to 6-cm-long root; the latter is used as the main ingredient in health foods, even though biological compounds are also found in the leaves and berries. Ginseng is considered a slow-growing medicinal plant, requiring 4 to 6 years of cultivation before harvest (Kim et al., 2018). The major biological compounds recognized in ginseng are a group of steroid-like triterpene saponins, known as ginsenosides. To date, hundreds of naturally occurring ginsenosides have been isolated from different parts of ginseng (Wang et al., 2019). The mechanisms of action of each ginsenoside can vary and are largely associated with their ability to bind to multiple hormone receptors. Ginsenosides can be divided into three major subtypes: protopanaxadiol, protopanaxatriol, and oleanolic acid type (Figure 3; Pace et al., 2015). Other biological compounds, such as polysaccharides and organic acids, can also be found in the species of ginseng. The composition and concentration of the phytochemicals vary depending on the species, soil environment in which ginseng is cultivated, growth stage, harvest time, and processing/extraction method. Among the extraction methods, three major preparations of ginseng are commonly used, namely white ginseng, red ginseng, and black ginseng. White ginseng undergoes preparation by slicing the roots followed by dehydration, commonly achieved through exposure to sunlight (Lee et al., 2015). Red ginseng, on the other hand, is created by steaming ginseng root at 95 to 100 °C for 2 to 3 h (Lee et al., 2015), while black ginseng is produced through nine cycles of steaming at the same aforementioned conditions (Sun et al., 2009). Steaming leads to the production of new ginsenosides and secondary metabolites (e.g., Rg3, Rg5, F4, Rg6, Rk3, Rs3, and Rs4); consequently, black ginseng is typically considered more potent compared to the others (Figure 4; Sun et al., 2009). Ginseng can also be fermented using a variety of methods (e.g., conventional fermentation organisms such as Lactobacillus and Asperigillus), promoting further changes in the composition of extracts. Ginseng is commercially available as raw root, supplements (capsule and solution), and in food and beverage products. Some products incorporate a standard ginseng extract known as G115, which has positive effects on blood glucose and lipid regulation, energy and physical performance, as well as immune and cognitive functions, as reviewed by Bilia and Bergoni (2020). We discuss below some potential health benefits (not all) and limitations of the inclusion of ginseng in dog and cat diets.

Figure 3.

Figure 3.

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Basic chemical structure of the major type of ginsenosides found in fresh ginseng. Created with BioRender.com.

Figure 4.

Figure 4.

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Illustration of a Panax sp. (ginseng) plant highlighting the use of its root as a dietary supplement, focusing on three of the most common processing methods applied to the root and its effect on the concentrations of bioactive compounds, with the highest concentrations found in black ginseng root, followed by red and white ginseng roots. Created with BioRender.com.

Physical performance

The use of ginseng as a supplement to improve exercise performance and/or recovery has been studied mostly in rats, mice, and in numerous studies in humans (reviewed in detail by Oliynyk and Oh, 2013). Supplementation of ginseng products prolonged endurance of non-trained rats (20 mg of ginseng saponins/kg BW/d; Wang and Lee, 1998) and their working capacity (intraperitoneal injected of 7.5 mL of ginseng tincture/kg BW; Filaretov et al., 1988), and improved swimming time in mice (100 mg of suspension of ginseng root/kg BW; Grandhi et al., 1994). In humans, mono- or multipreparations (e.g., ginseng in combination with vitamins) have improved psychomotor performance (350 mg/d; Ziemba et al., 1999) and work capacity (Pieralisi et al., 1991), with reduced lactate production during exercise (1,600 mg/d; Hsu et al., 2005). The beneficial effects of ginseng on physical performance are likely due to its corticosteroid-like effects through an indirect mechanism on the pituitary gland (Nocerino et al., 2000), regulation of oxidative status (Korivi et al., 2012), and an increase in oxygen uptake by tissues, which explain the reduced production of lactate. Furthermore, the enhancement of exercise endurance may be due to its effect on increasing utilization of free fatty acids over glucose for cellular energy demand (Wang and Lee, 1998). However, results are contradictory; in some studies, ginseng had no effect on exercise metabolism and performance (Morris et al., 1996; Allen et al., 1998; Engels et al., 2001, 2003; Ping et al., 2011). Discrepancies between studies are likely due to the use of different ginseng products and dosage, duration of supplementation, and study design and population (e.g., species, activity level, and sample size). To date, there are no published studies investigating the use of ginseng as a supplement to boost physical fitness in dogs or exercise recovery, both of which deserve further research prior to use.

Cognitive and cardiac function

Canine cognitive dysfunction syndrome is prevalent among senior dogs and shares neuropathological changes similar to those seen in Alzheimer’s disease in humans, such as cortical atrophy, ventricular enlargement, and amyloid angiopathy (Uchida et al., 1991; Borràs et al., 1999). Ginseng may enhance cognitive function in humans and rats, indicating its potential as a supplement worth considering for inclusion in dog diets. Such improvement has been mostly attributed to the neurotrophic and neuroprotective effects of the ginsenosides Rb1 and Rg1 through numerous potential mechanisms of action (reviewed in Smith et al., 2014). In humans, ginseng improved cognition in patients with Alzheimer’s disease (4.5 g of ginseng power/d in Lee et al., 2008 using the mini-mental state examination and Alzheimer disease assessment scale; 9 g of red Korean ginseng power/d in; Heo et al., 2008 using Alzheimer’s disease assessment scale and clinical dementia rating) and working memory in healthy people (up to 400 mg/d of a standardized extract evaluated through various methods, such as Corsi blocks, and both numeric and alphabetic working memory; Scholey et al., 2010). In rats, oral administration of ginsenosides improved cognitive performance of the animals in the Morris water maze (2 mg of Rb1/kg BW/d in Liu et al., 2011) and increased survival of neurons. However, there remains a dearth of knowledge regarding the long-term effects of ginseng on cognition, and the inconsistency among ginseng products and methodologies used to assess cognition pose a significant challenge in making direct comparisons and drawing definitive conclusions. Hielm-Bjorkman et al. (2007) evaluated the effects of a commercial product composed of ginseng and brewer’s yeast (Gerivet, Vetcare Ltd., Salo, Finland) against a negative control (brewer’s yeast; Saccharomyces cerevisae) in client-owned geriatric dogs for 8 wk. No side effects were observed, and dogs fed Gerivet (1/2 to 2 tablets/d, each tablet containing 40 mg of ginseng extract, leading to a dose of 1.58 to 4.44 mg of ginseng extract/kg BW) presented an improvement of cognitive outcomes (interested and forgetfulness, and alertness and quality of life assessed by visual analogue scale). However, the experimental design lacked a true placebo, thereby restricting the ability to draw definitive conclusions regarding the product’s effects. Additionally, the dog owners assessed the cognitive outcomes, which may have impacted the results. The use of cognitive tests, such as the discrimination learning tests, should be considered in future studies to better elucidate the effects of ginseng on cognitive function in dogs.

Chan et al. (1996; 1997) were one of the first to report the potential cardioprotective effects of ginseng, whereby purified triacylglycerol from P. pseudoginseng protected rat heart from ischemia. Subsequently, different species, extracts, and ginsenosides were investigated for their cardioprotective properties in animal models and human subjects. While the cardioprotective effects of ginseng products have been more clearly demonstrated in animal models and in in vitro trials, the ability to translate successful results to human patients has been challenging (reviewed by Gan and Karmazyn, 2018). Many ginsenosides have also been reported, mostly in in vitro models, to exert anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity, the former most likely achieved through the inhibition of the NF-κB signaling pathway (reviewed by Kim et al., 2017). This could help explain the potential neuroprotective and cardioprotective effects of certain ginseng products. However, the use of ginseng products as a functional ingredient to support heart and brain function, rather than a drug to treat cardiovascular and neurological conditions, deserves further investigation in dogs and cats and comparison to pharmaceuticals with known mechanism of action currently used clinically.

Metabolism

Ginseng has been studied mostly for its effects on lipid and carbohydrate metabolism. The hypothesis that ginseng can act as an effective glucoregulatory compound (e.g., attenuates postprandial glycemia) has been supported by previous research in diabetic and healthy human volunteers (Vuksan et al., 2000, 2001; Sievenpiper et al., 2006). However, some studies observed no effects in healthy humans (Sievenpiper et al., 2003a, 2003b) and diabetic dogs (Snead, 2007). With regards to lipid metabolism, ginseng saponin-rich extract (30 g/kg diet) suppressed the increase in BW in rats fed high-fat diets that may be mediated due to their inhibitory effect on pancreatic lipase activity (Karu et al., 2007). Similarly, Shin and Yoon (2018) observed a reduction in BW, adipose tissue mass and adipocyte size in rats fed high-fat diets containing ginseng extract (50 g/kg diet) compared to those fed high-fat diets only. The authors also observed a decrease in the expression of adipogenesis-related genes (e.g., peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ). More recently, Yoon et al. (2020) and Park et al. (2021) investigated the metabolic effects of black ginseng fed to beagle dogs. After 8 wk of supplementation (80 mg/kg BW/d), Yoon et al. (2020) reported an “improvement in the metabolic profile” of dogs over time after black ginseng supplementation. However, the study has significant flaws in terms of sample size and statistical design. It involved only four adult Beagles and lacked a control treatment, relying solely on blood collection at weeks 0, 4, and 8 for data comparison. When a supplement composed of black ginseng (100 mg/kg BW/d) and silkworm (100 mg/kg BW/d) was fed for 12 wk to overweight dogs consuming a high energy diet, serum total cholesterol and triglycerides concentrations were lower compared to those fed a high energy diet only, and obesity-related genes were downregulated (Park et al., 2021).

Safety

Ginseng is considered generally safe for humans. In China, the roots of P. ginseng C.A. Meyer were approved as a novel food by the Chinese health authority, meaning that it is considered a dietary herb that does not need approval for derived food products. In the United States, ginseng is considered to be well tolerated by adults and is “generally recognized as safe” by the United States Food and Drug Administration. Side effects are rare, but high doses (15 g of root material/d) may result in hypertension, gastrointestinal disturbances, nervousness, and insomnia in humans (Siegel, 1979). In dogs, no side effects were observed when black ginseng was provided for periods of 8 (Yoon et al., 2020) and 12 wk (Park et al., 2021), and when ginseng was provided as a commercial product (Gerivet) to geriatric dogs for 8 wk (Hielm-Bjorkman et al., 2007). Furthermore, no detrimental effects were observed in food intake, clinical chemistry, hematology, ophthalmology, and histopathological findings when G115, a ginseng extract, was provided up to 15 mg/kg BW to Beagles (Hess et al., 1983). Ginseng, however, may have an inhibitory effect on the coagulation cascade and should therefore not be taken with anticoagulant medications. Additionally, certain ginsenosides may exhibit estrogenic activity, which should be taken into consideration under specific physiological and pathological conditions.

Potential applications in dog and cat diets

The potential benefits of ginseng observed in the aforementioned studies highlight its potential use in the diets of dogs and cats. “Heart health” is a common claim in pet foods, and with the growing number of senior dogs and cats, ginseng's potential effect on cognition holds promise. As discussed, the use of ginseng to improve the physical fitness of dogs should be evaluated, and it has the potential to be included in supplements to facilitate its delivery during physical activities. Lastly, more studies with greater robustness are needed to support the potential effects of ginseng on canine metabolism. Proper characterization of the composition of the product utilized is also imperative to understand the mechanism of action and efficacy, which is a challenge already faced in the human food industry.

Standardization

Despite ginseng being classified as “generalized recognized as safe” in humans, safety does not imply effectiveness. As mentioned previously, there are numerous ginsenosides and other bioactive compounds in ginseng, with different bioactive properties. The positive effects of ginseng on metabolism will vary according to which ginsenosides (and their concentrations) are found in the extract/product. Furthermore, not all compounds may be biologically relevant due to, for example, poor bioavailability. Extracts and commercial products vary greatly in their ginsenoside content, and this poor standardization is a challenge to safely claim and compare the proposed outcomes from human and animal studies (Kitts and Hu, 2000). To overcome this issue, the use of standardized extracts in recent research has been employed for both ginseng C.A. Meyer (G115, marketed as Ginsana) and North American ginseng (extract CNT-2000 from Chai-Na-Ta Corp., Langley, BC). Thus, when considering the inclusion of ginseng in pet diets, it is imperative to characterize the composition and concentration of the bioactive compounds present in the product and target delivery of these compounds rather than just the product without knowledge of the active chemical compounds.

Conclusions and Further Considerations

The utilization of A. membranaceus and ginseng products in dog and cat food holds promise and merits attention, and their use mirrors the approach seen with functional foods or nutraceuticals in human nutrition and feed additives in the realm of animal nutrition. The fact that they are natural products is appealing, aligning with a growing trend in the pet food industry favoring botanical products. Astragalus membranaceus may support gut health, the immune system, and antioxidant status enhancement in companion animals. However, despite some investigation on the dietary use of A. membranaceus in various livestock species, there is a lack of information regarding its effects in dogs, and a complete dearth of information as to the potential in cats. Variations in biological responses among species may arise due to inherent metabolic and cell signaling differences. Although toxicity has not been documented, studies are required to assure its safety in dogs and cats. The use of ginseng is promising in diets for sporting and senior dogs due to its potential role in physical performance and cognition, respectively. Taking this into consideration in conjunction with its potential effects on the metabolism of lipids and carbohydrates, ginseng may be included in diets for adult dogs to promote overall health. However, even though some ginseng products have been evaluated in dogs, it is essential to evaluate the efficacy of the particular product or extract of interest through animal research targeting the species of interest, as its metabolic effects can vary depending on the final product. The inconsistent results also emphasize the necessity for species-specific studies and product standardization. Factors such as dosage, duration of exposure, extract composition, and interactions with the diet matrix can significantly impact biological outcomes and should be explored when a specific product is under consideration. Furthermore, dosage should also be considered in light of the feeding guidelines by product developers and nutritionists, but studies are needed to identify safe and ideal doses of specific products and extracts in dogs and cats. Given the current body of published literature, it is important to recognize that the lack of consistent methodologies in many studies and publications in low-impact journals warrants attention. Thus, rigorous characterization of the material, including its composition and processing parameters, is necessarily followed by empirical studies in the target species. In this regard, evaluating in vivo responses is imperative to substantiate claims and assess biological responses, as results from ex vivo and in vitro models may not reflect in vivo responses (Jansen et al., 2023).

Due to the surge in dietary supplements for dogs and cats and a shift in marketing from reactive to proactive approaches, where owners proactively seek preventive measures to safeguard their pets’ health, numerous products are being marketed based on pseudoscience; of which much is exacerbated by social media. Since the contamination of vegetable proteins with melamine imported from China in 2007, which resulted in numerous recalls and the deaths of over a thousand dogs (FDA, 2018), there has been a skeptical view toward importing products from China in the pet food industry. This could pose a challenge if there is no sustainable local production for A. membranaceus and ginseng products to meet industry demand. Considering all these factors, it becomes even more important to produce empirical data that provides evidence-based interventions documenting the efficacy and safety of products from these herbs in dogs and cats to gain industry and consumer trust. Otherwise, despite the potential promise of A. membranaceus and ginseng products as functional ingredients, without thorough scientific investigation, their dietary provision for dogs and cats without thorough scientific investigation may serve primarily as placebos driven mainly by marketing reasons.

Acknowledgments

This manuscript was invited for submission by the American Society of Animal Science. The views expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views or policies of the American Society of Animal Science, the journal, or the publisher. Funding was provided by the Mitacs Business Strategy Internship and Charmy Box. Inc. to complete this review.

Contributor Information

Júlia Guazzelli Pezzali, Centre for Nutrition Modelling, Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada.

Anna K Shoveller, Centre for Nutrition Modelling, Department of Animal Biosciences, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON N1G 2W1, Canada.

About the Authors

Inline graphic Júlia Guazzelli Pezzali earned her Bachelor’s in Veterinary Medicine from the Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, her MSc from Kansas State University, and her PhD from the University of Guelph. After completing her PhD, Dr. Pezzali embarked on her academic career as an Assistant Professor at Iowa State University, contributing to teaching in companion animal nutrition and pet food processing. Currently, she is an Assistant Professor and serves as the Director of the Pet Food Program at Kansas State University, where she contributes to teaching and research related to ingredient quality, pet food processing and safety, and companion animal nutrition and metabolism. The goal of her research program is to employ both basic and applied approaches to explore new ingredients, processing techniques, and dietary strategies to assist the industry in developing economic viable products that target and promote the overall health and well-being of companion animals. Corresponding author:jpezzali@ksu.edu

Inline graphic Anna Kate Shoveller is a Professor of Companion Animal Nutrition at the University of Guelph in Canada. Her research and teaching program is influenced by having grown up in Cayuga, Ontario and caring for animals of all species. Shoveller was employed by Procter & Gamble and Mars Pet Care from 2007 to 2015 and her experiences in industry underpin her research and teaching program today. Her research program explores amino acid and protein metabolism, fatty acid metabolism, and energy metabolism on the whole animal level using a mixed models approach to answer fundamental and applied nutrition questions in dogs, cats, and horses. Shoveller also collaborates with ethologists, geneticists, immunologists, and economists to explore fundamental problems in the companion animal industry.

Conflict of interest statement

A.K.S. is the Champion Petfoods Chair in Canine and Feline Nutrition, Physiology and Metabolism, consults for Champion Petfood, was previously employed by P&G and Mars Pet Care, serves on the Scientific Advisory Board for Champion Petfoods, and has received honoraria and research funding from various commodity groups, pet food manufacturers, and ingredient suppliers.

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