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. 2024 Jun 21;11:40. doi: 10.1186/s40779-024-00544-5

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. The Creative Commons Public Domain Dedication waiver (http://creativecommons.org/publicdomain/zero/1.0/) applies to the data made available in this article, unless otherwise stated in a credit line to the data.

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Fig. 5 — Fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) in sarcopenia. FGF2 and FGF19 increase muscle mass through the RAS-MAPK signaling pathway, and FGF2 promotes IMAT. FGF21 promotes autophagy of muscle tissue and decreases muscle mass. FGF23 accelerates the senescence of muscle tissue and maintains muscle function. IMAT intramuscular adipose tissue, FOXO forkhead box protein O, BNIP3 Bcl-2/E1B-19 kD interacting protein 3, HS heparan sulfates, FRS2α FGFR substrates 2α, SOS son of sevenless, MEK mitogen-activated extracellular, MAPK mitogen-activated protein kinase, ERK extracellular signal-regulated kinase