Table 1.

Studies on interventions in the body image of university students

No	Authors/year of publication/country	Name of intervention	Population	Intervention resource	Intervention approach	Sessions	Follow-up	Groups Exp. X control	Instruments	Objectives	Conclusion	QATSDD
1	Kosma et al. (2024) USA	Physical theater	8 participants	Classes Integrates an academic semester	Physical activity	1 academic semester (2 × /week; 90 min each)	No follow-up	No control group	Semi-structured interviews	Examine the effects of a semester-long physical theater class on body schema (body posture, awareness, confidence, expression)	Students highlighted the importance of physical theater to improve body posture, confidence, and emotional expression, emphasizing the need for integrated and holistic movement programs to enhance the body schema	24 57%
2	Bolter et al. (2023) USA	Brief weight bias, pedagogical intervention	Women, men, transgender men, transgender women, gender non-conforming subjects (n = 81)	Classes Integrates an academic semester	It did not indicate	3 modules, which could be taught between weeks 4 and 9 of the academic semester	No follow-up	Exp. = 48 Cont. = 33	AFAQ FPS BAS Semi-structured interviews	To evaluate the impact of a pedagogical intervention on weight stigma outcomes among first-year students	It highlights the importance of pedagogical interventions, showing that although the quantitative results were not significant, the qualitative ones suggest that brief interventions integrated into existing courses have the potential to engage students, indicating the need for longer and more uniform interventions, focusing on intersectionality and less stigmatizing measures of body composition	36 75%
3	Ong and Sündermann (2022) Singapore	Intellect Mental health app	Women and men (nW = 213; nM = 97)	Mobile app training	Cognitive-behavioral (cognitive dissonance) Psychoeducation Media literacy	9 days (< 5 min/day)	4 weeks	Exp. = 149 Cont. = 161	BIQ BAS-2 SATAQ-4 SCS;	To examine the effectiveness of a self-guided mobile health (mHealth) app in improving body image and self-compassion in a sample of university students	It presents preliminary evidence that a self-guided mHealth app may contribute to the improvement of body image concerns and self-compassion in young adult university students	33 79%
4	Cerea et al. (2021) Italy	GGBI Cognitive training of a mobile app	Women (nM = 50)	Mobile app Cognitive training	Cognitive-behavioral	16 days (3 min/day)	32 days T0–T1 = 16 days T1–T2 = 16 days	Exp. = 25 Cont. = 25	EDI-3 DASS-21 QDC	To evaluate the effectiveness of a mobile application based on cognitive-behavioral principles in reducing body dissatisfaction and symptoms of body dysmorphic disorder/eating disorders in female university students	Training can lead to reductions in some forms of body dissatisfaction, including symptoms of body dysmorphic disorder, in female university students at high risk of developing body image disorders	33 79%
5	Glashouwer et al. (2020) Netherlands	AAT Personalized avoidance training	Women (nM = 104)	Computer Task training	Cognitive-behavioral	4 sessions	1 week	Exp. = 34 Cont. placebo = 35 Cont. no training = 35	VAS BISS DT EDE-Q	To test whether training in approach and avoidance tendencies related to thinness is effective in improving body satisfaction through the use of personalized training with individuals’ body images	It did not provide evidence that approach-avoidance training is effective in improving body image	21 50%
6	Dondzilo et al. (2020) Australia	Modification of attention bias based on touchscreen	Women (nW = 110)	Computer Task training	Cognitive-behavioral	1 sess	No follow-up	No control group	DASS-21 BSRI	To determine the direct effect of attention bias of bodies with internalized thinness ideal on the state of depressive rumination and evaluate the efficacy of the attention bias using a touchscreen device	Current discoveries suggest that the modification of attention bias based on the touchscreen is effective in modifying patterns of attention bias and state of depressive rumination	22 52%
7	Wilver et al. (2020) USA	Safety behavior fading	Women (nW = 84)	Meetings Training through instructions	It did not indicate	2 s	1 week	Exp. = 41 Cont. = 43	EDI-3 BDD-YBOCS-SR SPIN BAAS IQ CES-D ABC	To explore the experimental effects of involvement reduction in behaviors related to appearance in appearance concerns and related symptoms	It provides robust evidence for the importance of safety behaviors related to appearance in the maintenance of body dysmorphic disorder and other body image-related disturbances	33 79%
8	Rato and Alves (2020) Portugal	SM Somatic movement	Women and man (nW = 9; nM = 1)	Classes It integrates the dance curriculum plan	Psychoeducation	20 sessions (1 semester)	No follow-up	No control group	Semi-structured interviews in depth; interviews of explanation; participants’ diaries and group discussions	To study the body image of dance students, through the development and application of a Somatic Movement program in a group of undergraduate dance students	The conscious utilization combined with multiple methods, such as in-depth semi-structured interviews; explanation interviews, group discussions, participants’ diaries, and field notes of the researcher brought significant advantages during the intervention	24 57%
9	Aboody et al. (2020) Israel	Mobile app for body image resilience	Women (nW = 91)	Mobile app Training	Cognitive-behavioral	14 days (4 min/day) (up to level 54) + a task of resilience on Instagram	1 month	Randomization 1:1	BAS-2 VAS PASTAS DASS-21 BIDQ SISE	To evaluate the effects of a cognitive-behavioral-based mobile app, projected to enhance the resilience to body image triggers and to reduce the symptoms of body image perturbances	The results highlight the potential utility of brief portable interventions of low intensity in reducing symptoms of body image perturbances and enhancing resilience to messages of thin bodies often propagated on social media	28 67%
10	Glashouwer et al. (2019) Netherlands	CE The procedure of evaluative conditioning	Women (nW = 129)	Computer Task training	It did not indicate	2 sessions (30 min each)	No follow-up	Exp. = 67 Cont. = 62	VAS BISS EDE-Q SSES RSES	To investigate if a procedure of evaluative conditioning based on computer use, utilizing social positive feedback is effective for improving body satisfaction	It suggests that the procedure of evaluative conditioning in its current format is not ready to be used as an intervention for improving body satisfaction	29 69%
11	Ariel-Donges et al. (2019) USA	Yoga	Women (nW = 75)	Meetings Yoga	Yoga	12 weeks (2 × /week; 60 min each)	No follow-up	Exp. = 37 Cont. = 38	MBSRQ-AS BDI-2 EAT-26 FMI	To evaluate the efficacy of Yoga as an innovative treatment for body dissatisfaction in young university women	It suggests that Yoga could help young university women to develop a healthier relationship with their bodies	30 71%
12	Lee et al. (2019) Taiwan	Beauty in the middle of movement: my healthy body image	Women (nW = 57)	Meeting Creative movement	Creative psychotherapy	8 sessions (1 × /week; 90 min each)	3 months	Exp. = 16 Cont. E. F. = 17 Cont. = 24	CES-D RSES MBSRQ-AS FFMQ	To reduce body dissatisfaction in female university students	It shows that after the program, scores of body image, mindfulness, and self-esteem improved in the experimental group in comparison to the other comparison and control groups. Scores remained elevated for 3 months after the intervention	26 62%
13	Díaz-Ferrer et al. (2017) Spain	Pure and guided exposure to the mirror	Women (nW = 35)	Meeting Mirror exposure training	Mindfulness	6 sessions (2 × /week; 45 min each)	No follow-up	Exp. pure = 17 Exp. guided = 18	VAS BIATQ BIAQ	To examine the psychophysiological alterations resulting from two treatments of mirror exposure that showed efficacy in reducing body dissatisfaction	It suggests that both approaches are effective as interventions to improve body image disturbances. However, the psychophysiological alterations observed during the sessions suggest that each technique may operate through different processes	28 67%
14	Toole and Craighead (2016) USA	Self-compassion meditation	Women (nW = 80)	Meetings Meditation	Mindfulness	1 week (20 min/day)	No follow-up	Exp. = 40 Cont. = 40	BAS-2 SCS RSES OBCS CSW BSQ	To evaluate an online-based version of self-compassion training	It suggests that brief exposure to the basic principles of self-compassion has the potential to improve aspects of self-compassion and discomfort with body image	23 55%
15	Khazir et al. (2015) Iran	Media literacy	Women (nW = 140)	Meetings Media literacy training	Media literacy	4 weeks 4 sessions (40 to 60 min)	4 weeks	Exp. = 70 Cont. = 70	RSES Acceptance of Cosmetic Surgery Scale BSS BICI	To examine the favorable attitude of a group of female university students about elective cosmetic surgery, body dysmorphic disorder, self-esteem, and body dissatisfaction after an intervention of media literacy training	It emphasizes the importance of media literacy intervention in reducing women’s favorable attitudes toward elective plastic surgery, body dysmorphic disorder, and body dissatisfaction, as well as enhancing self-esteem	33 79%
16	Becker et al. (2013) Estados Unidos	PL-DBI Peer-led cognitive dissonance-based intervention	Women (nW = 92)	Meetings Sessions of training	Cognitive-behavioral (cognitive dissonance)	2 sessions (2 h each)	8 months	No control group	EDE-Q OBCS IBSS-R BPS PANAS	To investigate whether an evidence-based body image improvement program, targeting the internalization of a thin ideal among college women also reduces self-objectification	It provides preliminary support for the use of dissonance interventions in reducing self-objectification and body control beliefs	26 62%
17	Adams et al. (2013) USA	Brief mindfulness	Women (nW = 65)	Meetings Meditation	Mindfulness	1 session	No follow-up	Purse + silence = 16 BS + silence = 15 Purse + mindfulness = 15 BS + mindfulness = 18	VAS EAT-26 FFMQ BSQ PANAS SSQ SOC BULIT-R MAEDS TMS QSU	To examine whether mindfulness can be a useful technique for minimizing the influence of body dissatisfaction on negative affect, smoking cravings, and smoking behavior	It provides preliminary support for the use of mindfulness-based treatments for female smokers in addressing body dissatisfaction	31 74%
18	Russell-Mayhew et al. (2012) Canada	Workshop of interactive training	Women and men (nW = 10; nM = 6)	Workshop	Interactive training	1 session (3 h)	3 months	No control group	SATAQ EAT BSS	To examine body image satisfaction and eating/weight-related behaviors before and after a professional workshop with future physical education teachers	Providing professional development for pre-service teachers can promote a more positive approach to body image, weight bias, and weight/eating-related concerns in schools	24 50%
19	Moore et al. (2011) USA	Program of 12-week resistance training	Women and men (nW = 37; nM = 83)	Classes University resistance training course (semester)	Physical training	12 weeks (2 × /week)	No follow-up	No control group	RSES PSPP PSAQ	To evaluate self-esteem using the hierarchical structure of the Exercise and Self-Esteem Model	It indicates significant improvements in self-perception constructs across all levels of the Exercise and Self-Esteem Model	21 50%
20	Yager and O’Dea (2010) Australia	Controlled intervention to promote healthy body image	Women and men (nW = 110; nM = 60)	Classes Regular didactic program	Cognitive-behavioral (cognitive dissonance) Media literacy	12 weeks (per intervention)	6 months (T3)	T1 and T2/T3: Exp. 1 = 52/20 Exp. 2 = 49/42 Cont. = 69/29	EDI EDE-Q GSW DEBQ BAR	To examine the impact of two interventions on body image, risk of eating disorders, and excessive exercise in 170 pre-service physical education and health teachers	It is feasible to promote body image, reduce body dissatisfaction, and decrease excessive exercise among pre-service physical education and health teachers through a health education curriculum	27 64%
21	Henry et al. (2006) USA	Aerobic and circuit training	Women (nW = 72)	Meetings Physical exercise	Physical training	12 weeks (3 × /weeks; 50 min each)	No follow-up	Aerobic training = 23 Circuit training = 28 Cont. = 21	BSIQ;	To determine the effect of aerobic and interval circuit training on the physical fitness and body image of women	It was concluded that an interval program combining aerobic, anaerobic, and strength training is more beneficial for improving body image than solely engaging in aerobic exercises or no exercise at all	29 69%

ABC Appearance Behavior Checklist, AFAQ Anti-Fat Attitude Questionnaire, BAAS Beliefs About Appearance Scale, BAR body appearance rating, BAS Body Appreciation Scale, BAS-2 Body Appreciation Scale-2, BDD-YBOCS-SR Body Dysmorphic Disorder-Yale-Brown Obsessive–Compulsive Scale, BDI-2 Body Dissatisfaction Inventory-2, BIAQ Body Image Avoidance Questionnaire, BIATQ Body Image-Acceptance and Action Questionnaire, BICI Body Image Coping Strategies Inventory, BIDQ Body Image Disturbance Questionnaire, BIQ Body Image Questionnaire, BISS Body Image States Scale, BPS Body Parts Satisfaction Scale, BSIQ Body Shape Interrogation Questionnaire, BSQ Body Shape Questionnaire, BSRI Brief State Rumination Inventory, BSS Body Satisfaction Scale, BULIT-R Bulimia Test-Revised, CES-D Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale, CSW cultural standards for women, DASS-21 Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21, DEBQ Dutch Eating Behaviors Questionnaire, DT drive for thinness, EAT Eating Attitudes Test, EAT-26 Eating Attitudes Test-26, EDE-Q Eating Disorder Examination Questionnaire, EDI Eating Disorder Inventory, EDI-3 Eating Disorder Inventory-3, FPS Fat Phobia Scale, FFMQ Five Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire, FMI fat mass index, GSW global self-worth, IBSS-R Interpersonal Body Comparison Scale-Revised, IQ interpretation questionnaire, MAEDS multidimensional assessment of eating Disorders Symptoms, MBSRQ-AS Multidimensional Body-Self Relations Questionnaire, OBCS Objectified Body Consciousness Scale, PANAS Positive and Negative Affect Schedule, PASTAS Physical Appearance State and Trait Anxiety Scale, PSAQ Physical Self-Appreciation Questionnaire, PSPP Physical Self-Perception Profile, QDC Questionnaire on Dysmorphic Concerns, QSU Questionnaire of Smoking Urges, RSES Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale, SATAQ Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Questionnaire, SATAQ-4 Sociocultural Attitudes Toward Appearance Questionnaire-4, SCS sociocultural standards, SISE Single-Item Self-Esteem Scale, SOC sense of coherence, SPIN Social Phobia Inventory, SSES Self-Esteem Scale, SSQ Self-Stat Body Image Questionnaire, TMS thinness motivation scale, VAS visual analog scale