Table 2.

Representative PET tracers for imaging neuroinflammation undergoing clinical trials since 2010

Biomarker	Tracer	Affiliation	Subjects	references
TSPO	[11C]ER176	National Institute of Mental Health, USA	HC (2016)	[33]
		Nantz National Alzheimer Center, USA	HC (2019)	[29]
	[18F]GE180	Imperial College London, UK	HC (2016)	[162, 163]
		Ludwig-Maximilians University Munich, Germany	HC, RRMS (2018)	[31]
		University of California, USA	HC, CCM (2023)	[32]
Adenosine	[18F]MNI-444	Molecular NeuroImaging, LLC, USA	HC (2015)	[46]
	[11C]Preladenant	Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Gerontology, Japan	HC (2017), HC, PD (2018), PD (2022)	[47, 141, 164]
CB2	[11C]NE40	University Hospital Leuven, Belgium	HC, AD (2016)	[53]
COX	[11C]KTP-Me	Center for Life Science Technologies RIKEN, Japan	HC (2014), HC, PiB, MCI, AD (2016)	[64, 145]
	[11C]PS13	National Institute of Mental Health, USA	HC (2020), (2023)	[66, 147]
P2X7	[11C]JNJ-54173717	University Hospital Leuven, Belgium	HC, PD (2019)	[69]
	[18F]JNJ-64413739	University Hospital Leuven, Belgium	HC (2019)	[71]
CSF-1	[11C]CPPC	Johns Hopkins Medical Institutions, USA	HC (2022)	[150]
I2BS	[11C]BU99008	Imperial College London, UK	HC (2018), HC, MCI, AD (2021), (2022)	[81, 84, 85, 154]
		King’s College London, UK	HC, PD (2019)	[82]
MAO-B	[11C]SL25.1188	University of Toronto, Canada	HC (2014), HC, MDD (2019), HC, PTSD (2022)	[90, 91]
	[18F]SMBT-1	Tohoku Medical and Pharmaceutical University, Japan	HC, MCI, AD (2022)	[161]
		University of Pittsburgh, USA	HC, MCI, AD (2022)	[97]
	[18F]DED	University Hospital of Munich, Germany	HC, AD, PD, MSA, AIE, OG (2023)	[93]

(HC : healthy controls, RRMS : relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis, CCM : cerebral cavernous malformations, PD : Parkinson’s disease, AD : Alzheimer’s disease, PiB : Pittsburgh compound-B, MCI : mild cognitive impairment, MDD : major depressive disorder, PTSD : posttraumatic stress disorder, MSA : multiple system atrophy, AIE : autoimmune encephalitis, OG : oligodendroglioma)z