Table 1.

Probiotics treatment.

Probiotics	Function
Probiotics VSL#3 (Lactobacillus acidophilus, Bacillus subtilis, plant-derived Lactobacillus, Escherichia coli)	Effective relief of morphine-induced opioid tolerance in mice (Zhang et al., 2019a)
Bifidobacterium bifidum	Maintain intestinal homeostasis (Wang et al., 2014)
Lactobacillus reuteri NK33 and Bifidobacterium adolescentis NK98, Lactobacillus helveticus R0052 and Bifidobacterium longum R0175	It alleviates the depressive state during pain treatment through neuroimmune mechanisms (Messaoudi et al., 2011; Jang et al., 2019; Yang et al., 2024)
Lactobacillus paracasei S16	It noticeably relieves pain and inflammatory responses in patients with lumbar disk herniation-related neuralgia (Wang et al., 2021)
Probiotic DSF (Lactobacillus plantarum, Streptococcus thermophilus, Bifidobacterium breve, Lactobacillus paracasei, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Bifidobacterium longum)	In vitro experiments have demonstrated that probiotics rich in these bacterial communities can treat neuropathic pain caused by chemotherapy drugs and alleviate inflammatory responses (Castelli et al., 2018)