Fig. 5. Volcano plots of causal effect estimates from SMILE-2 model for pollution on diseases.

We plotted the estimated odds ratios against −log₁₀(p-values) for the causal effects of (a) PM_2.5, (b) NO₂, and (c) the sum of the two pollutants (${\tilde{P}}_{SUM}$). All p-values are for two-sided hypothesis tests and are unadjusted for multiple comparisons. Dashed horizontal line represents Bonferroni significance threshold for testing 1083 diseases and three pollutants.