Table 3.
Predisposing Factor | References | |
---|---|---|
Environmental | Poor sanitation in breeding environments. Excessive stocking density (ease of transmission). Environment conducive to injury. Poor stall construction (too short or too narrow; excessive slope). Heat stress. Incorrect herd management. Concrete floors. Wet floors. Improper hoof correction. Lack of hoof inspection. Keeping animals in draughts. Concomitant limb and hoof diseases. Season of the year. |
[40,41,42] |
Individual | Size of cow. Hoof pigmentation. Age of cow. Herd size. |
|
Dietary | High-energy fodder. Insufficient fibre in diet. Excessive protein in diet. Mineral or vitamin deficiencies. Sudden changes in diet, especially in the post-partum period. |
|
Concomitant diseases | Metabolic disorders, e.g., subacute ruminal acidosis (SARA), leading to laminitis and white-line ulcers. | |
Genetic | Inherited hoof structure. Breed predispositions, mainly in Holstein-Friesian cows. |