Table 1.
Overview of included studies.
| Author (Year), Ref. | Flame Retardant Type | Country | Study Design | Investigated Population (n) | Measurement of Exposure | Relative Exposure Level; Concentration, Detection Frequency (DF) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Babichuk (2023) [38] | PBB-153, PBDE-28, PBDE-47, PBDE-99, PBDE-100, PBDE-153 | Canada | Cohort | Two rural coastal populations (n = 80) | Serum | Not specified; All DFs > 70% PBB-153: 0.57 PBDE-28: 0.00 PBDE-47: 4.84 PBDE-99: 1.63 PBDE-100: 0.00 PBDE-153: 9.03 |
| Liu (2023) [39] | TDCIPP, TEP, and TCEP | China | Cohort | Females of childbearing age (n = 319) | Serum | High TCEP concentration relative to TDCIPP and TEP TDCIPP: 2.03 ng/dL; DF: not specified TEP: 1.09 ng/mL, DF: >50%, TCEP: 0.33 ng/mL, DF: 96.6% |
| Trowbridge (2022) [40] | BDCPP | USA | Cross-sectional | Female firefighters and office workers from San Francisco (n = 165) | Urine | 5× higher in firefighters than office workers Firefighter: 4.08 pmol/g, DF: 100% Office workers GM: 0.90 pmol/g, DF: 90% |
| Liu (2022) [41] | PBB, PBT, DPTE, HBB, EHTBB, BTBPE, DBDPE, TPrP, TBP, TCEP, TCPP, TDCPP, TBEP, TPP, EHDP | China | Case–control | Patients with or without thyroid cancer (n = 481) | Serum | Not specified PBB: <MDL ng/g/lw; DF: 25% PBT: 0.2 ng/g/lw, DF: 77%, DPTE: 3.7 ng/g/lw, DF: 50% HBB: <MDL, DF: 20% EHTBB: <MDL, DF: 6% BTBPE: <MDL, DF: 22% DBDPE: 47 ng/g/lw, DF: 88% TPrP: 2.5 ng/g/lw, DF: 69% TBP: 127 ng/g/lw, DF: 25% TCEP: 15 ng/g/lw, DF: 64% TCPP: 237 ng/g/lw, DF: 61% TDCPP: 12 ng/g/lw, DF: 60% TBEP: 89 ng/g/lw, DF: 71% TPP: 22 ng/g/lw, DF: 81% EHDP: 15 ng/g/lw, DF: 3% |
| Hu (2021) [42] | BDE-28, BDE-47, BDE-99, BDE-100, BDE-183 | China | Cohort | Rural adult residents along Yangtze River (n = 329) | Serum and urine | High relative concentrations; DFs not included BDE-28: 1.49 ng/g lw BDE-47: 0.96 ng/g lw BDE-99: 1.16 ng/g lw BDE-100: 2.04 ng/g lw BDE-183: 2.15 ng/g lw |
| Percy (2021) [21] | BDCIPP, DPHP | USA | Cohort | Pregnant women and their newborns (n = 298) | Urinary and cord serum | Not specified DPHP: 1.74 µg/g creatinine (16 weeks), 1.73 µg/g creatinine (26 weeks), 2.10 µg/g creatinine (delivery), DF: 95%; BDCIPP: 0.75 µg/g creatinine (16 weeks), 0.74 µg/g creatinine (26 weeks), 0.81 µg/g creatinine (delivery), DF: 100% |
| Yang (2021) [43] | BDE-47, BDE-153 | China | Cross-sectional | Patients with abnormal thyroid hormone levels (n = 40) | Serum | Not specified BDE-47: 0.02 ng/mL, DF: 100% BDE-153: 0.01 ng/mL, DF: 89% |
| Yao (2021) [24] | DBP, DPHP | China | Case–control | Pregnant women from an urban region and their newborns (n = 360) | Urinary and serum | High DPHP compared to DBP DBP: 0.19 μg/g creatinine, DF: 57.2% DPHP: 0.66 μg/g creatinine, DF: 100% |
| Zhang (2021) [28] | BDE-209, ∑PBDEs = −28, −47, −99, −100, −153, −154, −183, −209 BDE-28, BDE-47, BDE-183, BDE-209, ∑PBDEs = 28, −47, −99, −100, −153, −154, −183 |
China | Case–control | Thyroid cancer patients from Anhui province (n = 616) | Serum | High BDE-209 compared to other BDEs BDE-28: 2.54 ng/g lw, DF: 79% BDE-47: 2.009 ng/g lw, DF: 100% BDE-99: 1.16 ng/g lw, DF: 98% BDE-100: 2.04 ng/g lw, DF: 83% BDE-153: 1.20 ng/g lw, DF: 89% BDE-154: 1.73 ng/g lw, DF: 65% BDE-183: 2.15 ng/g lw, DF: 82% BDE-209: 47.91 ng/g lw, DF: 100% |
| Zhao (2021) [44] | BDE-47, BDE-99, BDE-100, BDE-209 | China | Case–control | Residents of a well-known FR production region (n = 172) | Serum | High BDE-209 compared to others BDE-47: 0.607 ng/g lw, DF: 100% BDE-99: 0.600 ng/g lw, DF: 100% BDE-100: 0.333 ng/g lw, DF: 100% |
| Zhao (2021) [45] | PBEB, DBDPE | China | Cross-sectional | Residents of a BFR-producing region (n = 172) | Serum | PBEB: 0.134 ng/g lipid weight, DF: 94% DBDPE: 32.5 ng/g lipid weight, DF: 98% |
| Gravel (2020) [46] | tb-DPHP, BDE-209, BDE-47, BDCIPP, BDE-153 | Canada | Cross-sectional | Electronic waste recycling workers (n = 100) | Plasma and urine | 10× higher BDE-209 concentration in e-waste site workers than the control group tb-DPHP: 0.032 ng/mL, DF: 60% BDE-209: 32 ng/g lipids, DF: 89% BDE-47: 12 ng/g lipids, DF: 42% BDCIPP: 1.3 ng/mL, DF: 50% BDE-153: 8.0 ng/g lipids, DF: 44% |
| Huang (2020) [47] | BDE-28 | USA | Case–control | US military personnel (n = 148) | Serum samples during active duty | Higher concentrations noted to be correlated with a greater risk of PTC BDE-28: < MDL, DF: 33.8% |
| Kassotis (2020) [48] | TCEP, TDCIPP, 4-tBPDPP, B4tBPPP, T4tBPP, DiNP, TOTM, BDE-100 | USA | Case–control | Adults in central North Carolina (n = 72) | Chemical mixtures isolated from personal silicone wristband samplers | Higher concentrations of TDCIPP compared to others TCEP: 22.4 ng/g, DF: 68.9% TDCIPP: 359.6 ng/g, DF: 100% 4-tBPDPP: 59.2 ng/g, DF: 98.6% B4tBPPP: 23.4 ng/g, DF: 91.9% T4tBPP: 3.2 ng/g, DF: 79.7% DiNP: 62,942.5 ng/g, DF: 100% TOTM: 480.3 ng/g, DF: 100% BDE-100: 12.6 ng/g, DF: 79.2% |
| Li (2020) [49] | BDE-47, BDE-99, BDE-154, BDE-100, BDE-196, BDE-197, BDE-203, BDE-207 | Germany | Cohort | Women from the LUPE cohort (n = 99) | Breast milk | Not specified BDE-47: 204 pg/g lw, DF: 100; BDE-99: 62.5 pg/g lw, DF: 99 BDE-154: 8.25 pg/g lw, DF: 83 BDE-100: 54.3 pg/g lw, DF: 98 BDE-196: 16.8 pg/g lw, DF: 90 BDE-197: 73.1 pg/g lw, DF: 100 BDE-203: 16.7 pg/g lw, DF: 92 BDE-207: 56.3 pg/g lw, DF: 99% |
| Zhao (2020) [50] | DBDPE | China | Case–control | DBDPE manufacturing workers (n = 104) | Hair and nail and serum | High relative to other flame retardants in the region DBDPE: 40.5 ng/g lw, DF: 98% |
| Chen (2019) [51] | DBDPE | China | Case–control | Adults in a DBDPE manufacturing area (n = 302) | Serum | High DBDPE in manufacturing workers compared to non-working exposed residents DBDPE for occupationally exposed workers: 4170 ng/g lw, DF: 100% DBDPE for residents in manufacturing contaminated areas: 33.4 ng/g lw, DF: 100% |
| Cowell (2019) [52] | BDE-47 | USA | Cohort | Pregnant women in NYC and their children (n = 158) | Plasma and serum | Significant variation in concentration detected BDE-47: 75.0 ng/g lw, DF: 94.4% |
| Curtis (2019) [53] | PBBs | USA | Cohort | Children exposed to PBEs from the Michigan PBB registry | Serum | High PBB concentrations demonstrated effects relative to low PBB concentrations Before puberty complete (age ≤ 16): 0.22 ppb, DF > 92% After puberty complete (age > 16): 0.72 ppb, DF > 92% |
| Deziel (2019) [27] | BDE-209 | USA | Case–control | Thyroid cancer population in Connecticut (n = 500) | Serum |
High exposure levels correlated with a decreased risk of PTC BDE-209: 1.47 ng/g lw, DF: 84% |
| Guo (2019) [54] | BDE-47, BDE-153, BDE-183, BDE-204, BDE-207 ∑PBDEs | China | Case–control | Residents of an e-waste region (n = 112) | Serum | Higher concentrations at e-waste dismantling site compared to control BDE-47: 6.36 ng/g lw, DF: 99% BDE-153: 3.04 ng/g lw, DF: 100% BDE-183: <MDL, DF: 28% BDE-209: 1.47 ng/g lw, DF: 84% |
| Wang (2019) [55] | BDE-99, BDE-100, BDE-197, BDE-208, HBB, BDE-47, PBEB, TBE, BEHTBP | USA | Cohort | Residents in rural Central Appalachia (n = 101) | Serum and silicone wristband | High-exposure group compared to low-exposure group demonstrated greater thyroid disruption BDE-99: 11 ng/g lw, DF: 99% BDE-100: 2.2 ng/g lw, DF: 97% BDE-197: 0.065 ng/g lw, DF: 92% BDE-208: 0.14 ng/g lw, DF: 100% HBB: 0.032 ng/g lw, DF: 87% BDE-47: 14 ng/g lw, DF: 98% PBEB: 0.049 ng/g lw, DF: 96% TBE: 0.65 ng/g lw, DF: 96% BEHTBP: 31 ng/g lw, DF: 100% |
| Albert (2018) [56] | BDE-47 | Canada | Cohort | Healthy young men (n = 47) | Serum | Not specified BDE-47: 12.7 ng/g lw, DF: 27.2% |
| Byrne (2018) [29] | BDE-28/33, BDE-47, BDE-100, BDE-153 | USA | Case–control | Remote Alaska Native population (n = 85) | Serum | Not specified BDE-28/33: 3.22 pg/mL ww (wet weight), DF: 100% BDE-47: 46.57 pg/mL ww, DF: 97% BDE-99: 9.19 pg/mL ww, DF: 89% BDE-100: 9.96 pg/mL ww, DF: 97% BDE-153: 59.64 pg/mL ww, DF: 100% BDE-209: 18.39 pg/mL ww, DF: 97% |
| Chen (2018) [57] | BDE-209 | China | Cross-sectional | Occupational workers from a deca-BDE manufacturing plant (n = 72) | Serum and urine | High levels of BDE-209 relative to other studies and the general population BDE-209: 3420 ng/g lw, DF: 100% |
| Guo (2018) [30] | BDE-47, BDE-183, BDE-209 | China | Case–control | Fifth graders from South China (n = 174) | Serum | High BDE-209 concentration relative to other flame retardants in students living near a petrochemical complex BDE-47: 4.4 ng/g lw, DF: 100% BDE-183: 2.4 ng/g lw, DF: 93% BDE-209: 95 ng/g lw, DF: 98% |
| Li (2018) [58] | BDE-99, BDE-100, ∑PBDEs (−47, −99, −100) | Denmark | Cohort | Mothers of boys with and without cryptorchidism (n = 58) | Placenta | High exposure of ∑PBDEs relative to the general population BDE-99: <LOD (below the limit of detection), DF: 20.8% BDE-100: <LOD (below the limit of detection), DF: 12.5% ∑PBDEs: 3710 ng/g lw, DF: 100% |
| Vuong (2018) [59] | ∑PBDEs (BDE-28, BDE-47, BDE-99, BDE-100, BDE-153) | USA | Cohort | Mother–child pairs (n = 162) | Serum | Not specified BDE-47: 72.2 ng/g lw, DF: 100% BDE-99: 18.7 ng/g lw, DF: 100% BDE-100: 11.7 ng/g lw, DF: 100% ∑PBDEs: 105.8 ng/g lw, DF: 100% |
| Ding (2017) [19] | BDE-99, ∑PBDEs (−47, −99, −100, −153) | China | Cohort | Pregnant women in rural northern China (n = 107) | Cord blood | 10× increase in BDE-99 and ∑PBDEs each associated with an approximately 5% increase in tT4 levels BDE-99: 8.27 ng/g lw, DF: 97.2% ∑PBDEs: Not explicitly provided |
| Hoffman (2017) [2] | BDE-209, TCEP | USA | Case–control | Patients with papillary thyroid cancer at Duke University Hospital (n = 140) | Serum | Higher levels of BDE-209 are associated with smaller and less aggressive PTC, but a higher level of TCEP is associated with larger more aggressive PTC BDE-209: 95 ng/g lw, DF: 98% TCEP: Not explicitly stated |
| Liu (2017) [31] | OH-BDE-49, OH-BDE-47, ∑OH-PBDEs (−47, −49, −42) | China | Case–control | Thyroid cancer patients (n = 33) | Serum | Not specified OH-BDE-49: 0.007 ng/g lw, DF: 57.6% OH-BDE-47: 0.01 ng/g lw, DF: 72.7% ΣOH-PBDEs (−47, −49, −42): 0.06 ng/g lw, DF: 100% |
| Preston (2017) [60] | DPHP | USA | Cohort | Office workers from the Boston area (n = 51) | Serum and urine | Variable DPHP concentrations relative to other studies DPHP: 2.65 ng/mL (high concentration threshold), DF: 95% |
| Zheng (2017) [61] | BDE-47, BDE-66, BDE-85 | China | Cohort | Occupational e-waste recycling workers (n = 79) | Serum | Variable concentrations compared to other studies depending on location and population BDE-47: 4.4 ng/g lw, DF: 100% BDE-66: 0.77 ng/g lw, DF: 80% BDE-85: 1.42 ng/g lw, DF: 60.4% |
| Zheng (2017) [62] | BDE-153, BDE-7, BDE-99 | China | Cohort | Pregnant women (n = 72) | Women and cord serum | Concentrations in this study generally lower than in North America but higher than in Asia and Europe BDE-153: 0.43 ng/g lw, DF: 87.9% BDE-7: Not detected BDE-99: 0.31 ng/g lw, DF: 84.8% |
| Jacobson (2016) [63] | PBDE-47, PBDE-99, PBDE-100, PBDE-153, ∑PBDEs | USA | Cohort | Pediatric anesthesia patients, ages 1–5 in Atlanta (n = 80) | Serum | Similarly high concentrations of PBDE compared to studies within the US PBDE-47: 0.15 ng/g lw, DF: 100% PBDE-99: 0.04 ng/g lw, DF: 100% PBDE-100: 0.02 ng/g lw, DF: 83.8% PBDE-153: 0.02 ng/g lw, DF: 63.8% ∑PBDEs: 0.25 ng/g lw, DF: 100% |
| Leonetti (2016) [64] | BDE-47, BDE-99, BDE-209, 2,4,6-TBP, ∑BFR | USA | Cohort | Women who delivered term infants (n = 95) | Placenta | Higher relative concentrations of placental 2,4,6-TBP compared to PBDEs BDE-47: 5.45 ng/g lw, DF: 91.2% BDE-99: 2.02 ng/g lw, DF: 68.6% BDE-209: 3.08 ng/g lw, DF: 52.9% 2,4,6-TBP: 15.8 ng/g lw, DF: 100% ΣBFR: 39.1 ng/g lw, DF: Not specified |
| Lignell (2016) [65] | BDE-153 | Sweden | Cross-sectional | Randomly selected mothers from Uppsala County (n = 126) | Serum and breast milk | 10× lower PBDE body burden in Sweden women in this study compared to the US BDE-153: 0.48 ng/g lw, DF: Not specified |
| Aschebrook-Kilfoy (2015) [66] | BDE-47, BDE-99, BDE-100, BDE-153 | USA | Case–control | Nested CC in the prostate, lung, colorectal, and ovarian cancer screening trial (n = 311) | Serum | High BDE-47 burden compared to other PBDEs (70.5% of all included PBDEs) BDE-47: 12.9 ng/g lw, DF: 93.9% BDE-99: 2.8 ng/g lw, DF: 58.5% BDE-100: 1.7 ng/g lw, DF: 65.6% BDE-153: 1.6 ng/g lw, DF: 65.3% |
| Kim (2015) [20] | BDE-47, BDE-99 | Korea | Cross-sectional | Newborn infant population (n = 104) | Cord serum and bloodspot | Lower concentrations of PBDEs in this population of Korean infants compared to US infants but higher than European infants BDE-47: 3.0 ng/g lw, DF: 74.0% BDE-99: 3.0 ng/g lw, DF: 64.4% |
| Makey (2016) [67] | BDE-47, BDE-153 | USA | Cohort | Healthy adult office workers in Boston (n = 52) | Serum | Higher concentration than Asian and European studies BDE-47: 9.5 ng/g lw, DF: 100% BDE-153: 6.4 ng/g lw, DF: 100% |
| Vuong (2015) [23] | BDE-28, BDE-47 | USA | Cohort | Pregnant women from the HOME study (n = 389) | Serum and cord blood | Higher concentrations of PBDEs by 10–100× compared to European and Japanese studies BDE-28: 1.0 ng/g lw, DF: 80.0% BDE-47: 19.1 ng/g lw, DF: 100% |
| Xu (2015) [68] | ∑PBDEs | China | Case–control | Residents of an e-waste dismantling area in Zhejiang (n = 55) | Serum | Higher concentration of population near e-waste dismantling sites compared to control ΣPBDEs: 139.32 ng/g lw, DF: Not specified |
| Bloom (2014) [69] | ∑BDEs | USA | Cross-sectional | Upper Hudson River communities (n = 253) | Serum | Average levels of BDEs in this study relatively lower in a similar US population ΣBDEs: 0.42 µg/L serum (approximately 42 ng/g lw), DF: 100% |
| Huang (2014) [70] | BDE-17, BDE-28, BDE-47, BDE-99, BDE-153, BDE-183, BDE-209 | China | Cohort | Volunteers from northern China (n = 124) | Serum | Median BDE concentrations comparable to northern China, but generally lower than southern China BDE-17: below limit of quantification (bLOQ), DF: not specified BDE-28: 0.25 ng/g lw, DF: Not specified BDE-47: 0.21 ng/g lw, DF: Not specified BDE-99: 0.20 ng/g lw, DF: Not specified BDE-153: 0.62 ng/g lw, DF: 95% BDE-183: 0.22 ng/g lw, DF: Not specified BDE-209: 5.02 ng/g lw, DF: Not specified |
| Abdelouahab (2013) [16] | PBDE-47, PBDE-99, ∑PBDEs | Canada | Cohort | Pregnant women without thyroid disease (n = 260) | Serum | Lower levels of PBDEs compared to the general US population PBDE-47: 21.47 ng/g lw, DF: 100% PBDE-99: 2.32 ng/g lw, DF: 96% ΣPBDEs: 30.92 ng/g lw, DF: 100% |
| Johnson (2013) [71] | PentaBDE = ∑BDE-47, BDE-99, BDE-100 OctaBDE = ∑BDE-183 and BDE-201 |
USA | Cohort | Men recruited from Massachusetts General Hospital (n = 62) | Serum | Higher concentrations of pentaBDE than in European countries PentaBDE (∑BDE-47, BDE-99, BDE-100): 1049 ng/g dust, DF: 100% OctaBDE (∑BDE-183 and BDE-201): 30.5 ng/g dust, DF: 100% |
| Kim (2013) [72] | BDE-28, BDE-47, ∑PBDEs | Korea | Cohort | Pregnant women in Korea (n = 138) | Serum | Lower PBDE concentration in this population compared to a similar North American population BDE-28: 0.32 ng/g lw, DF: 68% BDE-47: 9.5 ng/g lw, DF: 100% ΣPBDEs: 18.7 ng/g lw, DF: 100% |
| Kim (2012) [73] | BDE-53, BDE-49, BDE-153, BDE-154, BDE-196, BDE-197 | South Korea | Case–control | Children with congenital hypothyroidism and their mothers (n = 76) | Serum | Lower PBDE concentrations compared to North American studies, but higher than values reported in the Netherlands BDE-53: 1.2 ng/g lw, DF: 38% BDE-49: 0.5 ng/g lw, DF: 50% BDE-153: 6.4 ng/g lw, DF: 100% BDE-154: 0.6 ng/g lw, DF: 83% BDE-196: 0.9 ng/g lw, DF: 25% BDE-197: 0.7 ng/g lw, DF: 21% |
| Leijs (2012) [74] | BDE-99 | Netherlands | Cohort | 14–19-year-old children from Amsterdam/Zaandam region (n = 33) | Serum | The concentration of BDE in the Netherlands was relatively high compared to other European countries, but still low compared to the US BDE-99: 1.6 ng/g lw, DF: 88% |
| Chevrier (2011) [18] | BDE-17, BDE-28, BDE-47, BDE-66, BDE-85, BDE-99, BDE-100, BDE-153, BDE-154, BDE-183 | USA | Cross-sectional | Pregnant women in California Salinas Valley and their children (n = 289) | Serum | BDE-47 dominant congener in this study, consistent with prior studies Variable PBDE levels compared to other countries BDE-17: <LOD, DF: 1% BDE-28: 0.6 ng/g lw, DF: 57.6% BDE-47: 15.2 ng/g lw, DF: 99.7% BDE-66: <LOD, DF: 18.8% BDE-85: 0.3 ng/g lw, DF: 51.0% BDE-99: 3.8 ng/g lw, DF: 99.0% BDE-100: 2.6 ng/g lw, DF: 97.6% BDE-153: 2.2 ng/g lw, DF: 96.9% BDE-154: <LOD, DF: 49.0% BDE-183: <LOD, DF: 30.2% |
| Eggesbø (2011) [7] | BDE-28, 47, 99, 153, 154, 209 and HBCD | Norway | Cohort | Women in the Norwegian human milk study (n = 239) | Serum and breast milk | Lower flame retardant concentrations in Norway than in comparable US or Canadian populations BDE-28: 0.25 ng/g lw, DF: Not specified BDE-47: 0.21 ng/g lw, DF: 92% BDE-99: 0.20 ng/g lw, DF: 91% BDE-153: 0.62 ng/g lw, DF: 95% BDE-154: 0.08 ng/g lw, DF: 2% BDE-209: 5.02 ng/g lw, DF: 121 HBCD: 1.24 ng/g lw, DF: 66% |
| Lin (2011) [75] | BDE-99, BDE-154, BDE-183, ∑PBDEs | Taiwan | Cohort | Mothers and their nursing infants with PBDE exposure (n = 54) | Serum and cord blood | Cord blood from Taiwanese newborns was significantly lower than reported in American studies BDE-99: 0.724 ng/g lw, DF: 83.3% BDE-154: 0.100 ng/g lw, DF: 90.7% BDE-183: 0.505 ng/g lw, DF: 50.0% ∑PBDEs: 3.49 ng/g lw, DF: N/A |
| Stapleton (2011) [22] | BDE-47/99/100, BDE-153, 4′OH-BDE-49/6-OH-BDE-47 | USA | Case–control | Pregnant women >34 weeks into pregnancy (n = 137) | Serum | Notable temporal decrease in PBDE concentration from prior studies BDE-47: 18.87 ng/g lw, DF: 94.89% BDE-99: 5.50 ng/g lw, DF: 64.23% BDE-100: 4.61 ng/g lw, DF: 89.05% BDE-153: 5.65 ng/g lw, DF: 96.35% 4′-OH-BDE-49: 0.12 ng/g lw, DF: 71.93% 6-OH-BDE-47: 0.19 ng/g lw, DF: 66.67% |
| Zota (2011) [26] | BDE-85, BDE-207 | USA | Cohort | Second-trimester pregnant women (n = 25) | Serum | The BDE concentrations were the highest reported concentrations in pregnant women at the time BDE-85: 0.82 ng/g lw, DF: 72% BDE-207: 1.54 ng/g lw, DF: 52% |
| Chevrier (2010) [17] | ∑PBDEs (BDE-28, BDE-47, BDE-99, BDE-100, BDE-153) | USA | Case–control | Pregnant women from Monterey County, CA (n = 270) | Serum | The BDE concentrations were the highest reported concentrations at the time BDE-28: 0.5 ng/g lw, DF: 52.2% BDE-47: 15.0 ng/g lw, DF: 99.6% BDE-99: 4.0 ng/g lw, DF: 99.6% BDE-100: 2.4 ng/g lw, DF: 98.5% BDE-153: 2.1 ng/g lw, DF: 98.5% ∑PBDEs: 25.2 ng/g lw, DF: 100% |
| Wang (2010) [76] | BDE-126, BDE-205, PBB-103 | China | Case–control | People exposed to an e-waste site (n = 325) | Serum | Relative higher levels of BDEs by e-waste dismantling regions compared to controls BDE-126: 0.19 ng/mL plasma, DF: Not specified BDE-205: 0.03 ng/mL plasma, DF: Not specified PBB-103: 0.67 ng/mL plasma, DF: Not specified |
| Dallaire (2009) [33] | BDE-47, BDE-153 | Canada | Cross-sectional | Inuit adults (n = 623) | Serum | Average concentrations significantly lower in this population than the average US population BDE-47: 2.16 ng/g lw, DF: 57.3% BDE-153: 2.05 ng/g lw, DF: 73.8% |
| Turyk (2008) [37] | BDE-47, ∑PBDEs | USA | Cohort | Adult male sport fish consumers (n = 354) | Serum and urine | Not specified BDE-47: 3.8 ng/g lw, DF: 98% ∑PBDEs: 38 ng/g lw, DF: 100% |
| Herbstman (2008) [34] | BDE-47, BDE-100, BDE-153 | USA | Cohort | Infants delivered at Johns Hopkins Hospital (n = 297) | Serum | Relative concentrations consistent with average reported US BDE concentrations BDE-47: 13.8 ng/g lw, DF: 90.7% BDE-100: 2.3 ng/g lw, DF: 35.6% BDE-153: 2.6 ng/g lw, DF: 39.8% |
| Julander (2005) [35] | BDE-28, BDE-99, BDE-100, BDE-154, BDE-183 | Sweden | Cohort | Personnel working with electronic dismantling (n = 19) | Serum | BDE-154 and BDE-183 notably higher than the general non-e-waste occupational Swedish population, while BDE-99 and BDE-100 were lower; DF was not reported BDE-28: 0.25 pmol/g lw BDE-99: 0.78 pmol/g lw BDE-100: 0.44 pmol/g lw BDE-154: 0.19 pmol/g lw BDE-183: 0.83 pmol/g lw |
| Bahn (1980) [32] | PBB | USA | Cohort | Workers from a PBB manufacturing plant (n = 86) | Serum | Higher relative concentrations in occupations including electronic recycling and steel workers compared to the general population PBB: 1.5 ng/mL serum, DF: 87% |
Abbreviations: DF = distribution frequency, lw = lipid weight.