Table 2.

Apigenin as an antimicrobial agent.

Activity	Species	Mechanism	Outcome	Refs.
Antibacterial	Enterococcus caccae	Alters the gene expression; membrane synthesis and protein misfolding are affected	Growth and gene expression of Enterococcus caccae was affected by this compound	[167]
	Streptococcus mutans	Polysaccharide content affected	Apigenin as well as tt-farnesol affected the accumulation and polysaccharide content of S. mutans biofilms The fucosyltransferase activity was affected only by apigenin	[168]
	Enterobacter cloacae	Leakage of intracellular constituents and damage of the CREC cytoplasmic membrane	Apigenin exhibited inhibitory effects against penicillinase type IV The combined application of ceftazidime and apigenin resulted in a significant alteration of outer membrane permeabilization	[169]
	Staphylococcus aureus	Leakage of intracellular constituents and damaged MRSA cytoplasmic membrane	The combination of ampicillin and ceftriaxone with apigenin caused cytoplasmic membrane damage of MRSA and led to the leakage of intracellular constituents The combined use of ampicillin and ceftriaxone with apigenin resulted in noticeable morphological damage to the cell wall, cell shape, and plasma membrane	[170]
	Escherichia coli	Increase in intracellular calcium and induces bacterial apoptosis	Bacterial apoptosis was caused by apigenin by the activation of cellular oxidative pathways	[171]
Antifungal	Candida albicans	Morphological changes, cell shrinkage membrane disturbances	Antifungal activity of apigenin was noted via inducing membrane disturbances, which causes cell shrinkage	[172]
	Candida albicans	Induced uptake of calcium and induced apoptosis activation	Apigenin triggers various biochemical responses that contribute to its antifungal activity	[173]
Antiviral	EV71	Suppressing viral IRES, modulating cellular JNK pathway	Apigenin inhibits EV71 replication	[174]
	Influenza A virus	Inhibiting upregulation of retinoic acid-inducible gene-I expression and interferons and pro-inflammatory cytokines	Apigenin inhibits influenza A virus (IAV)-induced inflammation as well as viral replication	[175]
	EV71	Disrupting the viral RNA’s suppressed the expression of GFP	Apigenin can selectively block EV71 infection	[176]
Anti-parasitic	Leishmania amazonensis	Inhibition of cellular proliferation increased reactive oxygen species generation	Treatment with apigenin caused by concentration-dependent inhibition of cellular proliferation	[177]