Table 1.
Characteristics of the included studies
| Study (Country) |
Description of Intervention | Intervention duration (follow-up) |
Comparison group(s) | Theoretical basis | Sample characteristics at baseline | Type of PA/SB—measurement | Determinant (measurement) | Ca |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| School setting | ||||||||
| Andruschko et al., 2018 [59] (Australia) | The Sport4Fun intervention consisted of two practical components (a compulsory 90min weekly movement skill activity in school sport and a non-compulsory 60min after school sports-based program) and one theoretical component (three 15min sessions per week during homeroom) |
6 months (n/a) |
Control – Usual PE curriculum | Social cognitive theory |
N = 20 Age: 12-15y Mean age (sd): 13.2 (0.9) Girls: 52.5% |
Total weekday PA and SB (counts/min) Accelerometer (ActiGraph) |
Perceived physical competence (Southall et al., 2004) | 1 |
| Fundamental Movement Skills (NSW Department of Education & Training, 2000) | 2 | |||||||
| Enjoyment (Motl et al., 2001) | 1 | |||||||
|
Casado-Robles et al., 2022 [65] (Spain) |
Intervention consisted of delivering inside lessons (i.e., in-school teaching unit, using conventional school facilities) followed by outside lessons in the immediate environment (i.e., out-of-school teaching unit, using outside installations and features, green zones, or a municipal sport center) |
4 weeks (n/a) |
Control – Fitness, traditional and alternative games and sports | Self-determination theory, Trans-contextual model |
N = 171 Age: 13-15y Mean age (sd): 14.05 (0.95) Girls: 52.5% |
%MVPA and %SB Accelerometer (ActiGraph) |
Knowledge about the environment to practice PA (Casado-Robles et al., 2021) | 1 |
| Perceived autonomy support (Moreno et al., 2008) | 1 | |||||||
| Autonomous and controlled motivation (BREQ-3, González-Cutre et al., 2010) | 1 | |||||||
| Intention to be physically active (Granero-Gallegos et al., 2014) | 1 | |||||||
|
Corder et al., 2016 [53] (UK) |
Implementation of the GoActive intervention aimed at increasing PA through increased peer support, self-efficacy, self-esteem, group cohesion and friendship quality. The intervention was implemented in tutor groups using a tiered leadership system |
8 weeks (n/a) |
Control—No intervention | Based on the strengths of various models and approaches |
N = 460 Age: 13-14y Mean age (sd): 13.2 (0.4) Girls: 46.6% |
Average daily minutes in MVPA Accelerometer (ActiGraph) |
Self-efficacy for PA (Saunders et al., 1997) | 1 |
| Social support by peers (Ommundsen et al., 2008) | 3 | |||||||
| Friendship quality (Goodyer et al., 1997) | 3 | |||||||
| Shyness (Buss & Plomin, 1984) | 1 | |||||||
| Sociability (Buss & Plomin, 1984) | 1 | |||||||
| Barriers to PA (no reference provided) | 1 | |||||||
|
Corder et al., 2020 [54] (UK) |
GoActive intervention aimed to maximize students’ PA through increased peer support, self-efficacy, self-esteem, and friendship quality, and was implemented in tutor groups using a student-led tiered-leadership system |
12 weeks (10 months) |
Control—No intervention | Evidence-based approach, multiple guidelines and frameworks |
N = 2862 Age 13-14y Mean age (sd): 13.2 (0.4) Girls: 47.9% |
MVPA (min/day) SB (min/day) Accelerometer (Axivity) |
Self-efficacy for PA (Saunders et al., 1997) | 1 |
| Friendship quality (Goodyer et al., 1997) | 3 | |||||||
| Social support by peers (Ommundsen et al., 2008) | 3 | |||||||
| Self-esteem (Rosnberg, 1979) | 1 | |||||||
|
Ha et al., 2020 [55] (China) |
A Self-determined Exercise and Learning for FITness (SELF-FIT) program aimed to maximise students' MVPA, infuse fitness and game-like elements into PE using self-determination theory principles, and enhance students’ need satisfaction and autonomous motivation |
8 lessons (n/a) |
Control (wait-list)—Usual practices | Self-determination theory |
N = 667 Mean age (sd): 14.4 (0.78) Girls: 69% |
PA (7-day counts/min) Accelerometer (ActiGraph) |
Basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence, relatedness) (Ng et al., 2011) | 1 |
| Autonomous and controlled motivation (PLCQ, Lonsdale et al., 2011) | 1 | |||||||
| Perceived need support from teachers (LCQ, Williams et al., 1994) | 3 | |||||||
|
Hankonen et al., 2017 [60] (Finland) |
Multi-level intervention (Let’s Move It) aimed to increase PA and decrease SB in vocational school students, consisted of a 6-h group-based intervention for students, two 2-h training for teachers to reduce students’ sitting in class, and provision of light PA equipment in classrooms |
6 weeks (n/a) |
Control – Usual PE + leaflet on recommendations for youth PA | Self-determination theory, Self-regulation theories |
N = 40 Age: 17-25y Mean age (sd): 18.9 (1.67) Girls: 85% |
%MVPA and %SB (out of total wear time) Accelerometer (Hookie) |
BCT (items developed for this study—no reference provided) | 2 |
|
Jago et al., 2021 [56] (UK) |
The PLAN-A (Peer-Led physical Activity iNtervention for Adolescent girls) program focuses on increasing PA in secondary school age girls, providing choice and autonomy over PA while building PA competence and connectedness with others (peer support) |
10 weeks (n/a) |
Control – Usual PE curriculum | Diffusion of innovation theory, Self-determination theory |
N = 1558 Age: 13-14y Mean age (sd): 13.80 (0.33) Girls: 100% |
Weekday and Weekend MVPA and SB (in minutes) Accelerometer (ActiGraph) |
Autonomous and controlled motivation (BREQ-2, Markland & Tobin, 2004) | 1 |
| Basic psychological needs (autonomy, competence, relatedness) (Standage et al., 2004; McAuley et al., 1989) | 1 | |||||||
| PA self-efficacy (Bartholomew et al., 2006) | 1 | |||||||
| Social support for PA by peers (Mendonça, 2015) | 3 | |||||||
| Peer norms of PA: prevalence, importance, acceptance (no reference provided) | 3 | |||||||
| Lonsdale et al., 2013 [57] (Australia) | Three intervention groups were included: (1) Relevance group (teachers explained the rationale and importance of the activity to the students' lives); (2) Providing choice group (teachers provided students with 2–4 opportunities for choice within the lesson), and (3) Free choice group (teachers provided the students with equipment but refraining from giving instructions) |
1 session (n/a) |
Control—Usual teaching practice |
Self-determination theory |
N = 288 Mean age: 13.6 Girls: 49.6% |
%MVPA and %SB in a single PE lesson Accelerometer (ActiGraph) |
Basic psychological needs: Autonomy (Ng et al., 2011; Standage & Gillison, 2007), Competence (McAuley et al., 1989), Relatedness (Richer & Vallerand, 1998) | 1 |
| Self-determination index (Situational Motivation Scale, Guay et al., 2000; Lonsdale et al., 2009) | 1 | |||||||
| Teacher autonomy support: Choice provided, Relevance explained (Taylor & Lonsdale, 2010) | 1 | |||||||
| Schnider et al., 2021 [58] (Switzerland) | Behavioural skill training as part of compulsory PE aimed to increase adolescents’ PA, exercise/sport intention, motivation, coping planning and self-efficacy. The intervention included three 20-min sessions carried out during a 90-min double PE lesson and focusing on goal setting, implementation intentions and exercise/sport plans in classroom |
6 weeks (3 months) |
Control – Regular PE (one 45-min and one 90-min lesson per week) | Behavioural (or self-regulatory) skill training |
N = 128 Age: 14-19y Mean age (sd): 15.8 (1.2) Girls: 52% |
PA (steps/day) Accelerometer (ActiGraph) |
Motivation: Intrinsic, Identified, Introjected, Extrinsic (Seelig & Fuchs, 2006) | 1 |
| Exercise/sport intention (Seelig & Fuchs, 2006) | 1 | |||||||
| Implementation intentions (Sniehotta et al., 2005) | 1 | |||||||
| Coping planning (Sniehotta et al., 2005) | 1 | |||||||
| Self-efficacy (for barrier coping) (Krämer & Fuchs, 2010) | 1 | |||||||
| Sudholz et al., 2023 [67]b (Australia) | Height-adjustable desks in combination with prompts (posters and desk stickers) to break up prolonged sitting time during class time. Teachers received professional development in the use of the desks and prompts |
17 weeks (n/a) |
Control—No intervention | Capability, Opportunity, Motivation, Behavior model |
N = 105 Age: 12-17y Mean age (sd): 14.8 (1.7) Girls: 43.1% |
SB (sitting min/lesson) Accelerometer (activPAL3C) |
Habit strength (Gardner et al., 2012) | 2 |
| Self-efficacy (for replacing classroom sitting with standing) ((items developed for this study based on Maher et al., 2012) | 1 | |||||||
|
Verswijveren et al., 2022 [66] (Australia) |
The RAW-PA was a multicomponent intervention for adolescents living in areas of socioeconomic disadvantage integrating more physical activity into their day by combining an activity tracker with digital resources that specifically targeted evidence-based behavior-change techniques (e.g., infographics, videos, and social forums) |
12 weeks (6 months) |
Control (wait-list) – No intervention | Social cognitive theory, Behavioral choice theory |
N = 159 Mean age (sd): 13.7 (0.4) Girls: 58.5% |
Average daily MVPA and sedentary time Accelerometer (ActiGraph) |
Self-efficacy (Dewar et al., 2013) | 1 |
| Peer support (Dewar et al., 2013) | 3 | |||||||
| Family support (Dewar et al., 2013) | 3 | |||||||
| Teacher support (Dewar et al., 2013) | 3 | |||||||
| Self-regulation strategies (Dewar et al., 2013) | 1 | |||||||
| Perceived barriers to PA (Robbins et al., 2008) | 1 | |||||||
| Enjoyment (Motl et al., 2001) | 1 | |||||||
| School and family setting | ||||||||
| Aittasalo et al., 2019 [61] (Finland) | The Kids Out! intervention integrating behavioral theory-driven content into three routinely scheduled HE lessons in secondary schools. The multimodal content included Internet-based self-assessment with feedback views, YouTube-video, refillable student leaflet, refillable classroom poster, classroom peer-discussions and parental leaflet for influencing their children's PA |
4 weeks (n/a) |
Control – Standard HE lessons on PA |
Health action process approach model |
N = 1550 Mean age (sd): 13.9 (0.5) Girls: 47.8% |
Total PA (min/day) Accelerometer (Hookie) | Short-term behavioural intention (related to walking/cycling to school, leisure PA, and screen time) (Roberts et al., 2010) | 1 |
| Confidence to execute behavioural intention (related to walking/cycling to school, leisure PA, and screen time) (Roberts et al., 2010) | 1 | |||||||
| Family norm (items developed for this study—no reference provided) | 3 | |||||||
| Dewar et al., 2014 [62] (Australia) | The Nutrition and Enjoyable Activity for Teen Girls (NEAT Girls) program was a school-based intervention designed to prevent unhealthy weight gain in adolescent girls living in low-income communities through improving PA, dietary and reducing SB. The intervention included enhanced school sports sessions (40 × 90 min), interactive seminars, student handbooks, nutrition workshops, parent newsletters and text messages |
12 months (n/a) |
Control – No intervention | Social cognitive theory |
N = 357 Mean age (sd): 13.2 (0.5) Girls: 100% |
Total MVPA (%) and total SB (%) Accelerometer (ActiGraph) |
Self-efficacy (Dewar et al., 2012) | 1 |
| Perceived environment (home/ neighborhood) (Dewar et al., 2012) | 4 | |||||||
| Perceived environment (school) (Dewar et al., 2012) | 4 | |||||||
| Social support by friends (Dewar et al., 2012) | 3 | |||||||
| Social support by family (Dewar et al., 2012) | 3 | |||||||
| Behavioral strategies (Dewar et al., 2012) | 2 | |||||||
| Outcome expectations (Dewar et al., 2012) | 1 | |||||||
| Outcome expectancies (Dewar et al., 2012) | 1 | |||||||
| Self-efficacy (Motl et al., 2000) | 1 | |||||||
| Lubans et al., 2010 [63] (Australia) | Extra-curricular school sport program (Program X) involving: (1) enhanced school sport program focusing on lifetime PA, (2) information sessions focusing on PA and healthy eating, (3) pedometers for PA monitoring, (4) PA and nutrition handbooks and monthly information newsletters for parents, (5) social support (by e-mail) for healthy behaviors |
10 weeks (n/a) |
Control—the 10-week school sport without the strategies for behavior change |
Social cognitive theory |
N = 124 Mean age (sd): 14.1 (0.8) Girls: 57.3% |
PA (steps/day) Pedometer |
Self-efficacy (Motl et al., 2000) | 1 |
| Family support (Sallis et al., 2002) | 3 | |||||||
| Self-management strategies (Saelens et al., 2000) | 1 | |||||||
| Family setting | ||||||||
|
Cowley et al., 2021 [64] (UK and Ireland) |
The home-based multi-component PA intervention (HERizon Project) for adolescent girls included: (1) Three 30min virtual exercise sessions each week, (2) Behaviour-change support calls (“Activity Mentor”), (3) No-reply sms (three text messages per week aimed at providing PA-related facts, encouragement, and study information) |
6 weeks (n/a) |
Control (wait-list) – No intervention | Self-determination theory |
N = 42 Age: 13-16y Mean age (sd): 14.2 (1.1) Girls: 100% |
PA (steps/day) Mobile phone-based pedometer app (Google fit) |
Motivation: Intrinsic, integrated, Identified, Introjected, Extrinsic, Amotivation (BREQ-3, Markland & Tobin, 2004; Wilson et al., 2006) | 1 |
| Perceived competence (Walston & Smith, 1995) | 1 | |||||||
| Self-esteem (Hafekost et al., 2017) | 1 | |||||||
| Body appreciation (Avalos et al., 2005) | 1 | |||||||
aDeterminant category: 1 = Individual–psychological, 2 = Individual–behavioural, 3 = Interpersonal, 4 = Institutional
bCT (all other studies are RCTs)