Table 2.
Results of the nutritional questionnaire.
| RBD | OPO | CTRL | Group Differences (RBD vs. OPO vs. CTRL) | |||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| OI | HPP | XLH | Overall | |||||
| Number of daily meals, N (%) | 1–2 meals | 4 (26.7) | 3 (20.0) | 3 (18.8) | 10 (21.7) | 9 (18.0) | 9 (17.3) | p = 0.840 |
| 3–4 meals | 8 (53.3) | 12 (80.0) | 8 (50.0) | 28 (60.9) | 34 (68.0) | 33 (63.5) | ||
| 5–6 meals | 3 (20.0) | 0 (0.0) | 5 (31.3) | 8 (17.4) | 6 (12.0) | 8 (15.4) | ||
| 6 ≥ meals | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (2.0) | 2 (3.8) | ||
| Water/unsweetened drinks per day, N (%) | ≤1 glass (up to 200 mL) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (6.7) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (2.2) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | p = 0.124 |
| 2 glasses (300–500 mL) | 1 (6.7) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (12.5) | 3 (6.5) | 3 (6.0) | 4 (7.7) | ||
| 3–5 glasses (600–1000 mL) | 7 (46.7) | 3 (20.0) | 4 (25.0) | 14 (30.4) | 14 (28.0) | 5 (9.6) | ||
| >1 L | 7 (46.7) | 11 (73.3) | 10 (62.5) | 28 (60.9) | 33 (66.0) | 43 (82.7) | ||
| Sweetened drinks per day, N (%) | ≤1 glass (up to 200 mL) | 13 (86.7) | 13 (86.7) | 13 (81.3) | 39 (84.8) | 42 (84.0) | 44 (84.6) | p = 0.841 |
| 2 glasses (300–500 mL) | 1 (6.7) | 1 (6.7) | 3 (18.8) | 5 (10.9) | 7 (14.0) | 6 (11.5) | ||
| 3–5 glasses (600–1000 mL) | 1 (6.7) | 1 (6.7) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (4.3) | 1 (2.0) | 1 (1.9) | ||
| >1 L | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (1.9) | ||
| Light drinks per day, N (%) | ≤1 glass (up to 200 mL) | 13 (86.7) | 15 (100) | 15 (93.8) | 43 (93.5) | 47 (94.0) | 50 (96.2) | p = 0.699 |
| 2 glasses (300–500 mL) | 2 (13.3) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (6.3) | 3 (6.5) | 2 (4.0) | 1 (1.9) | ||
| 3–5 glasses (600–1000 mL) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (2.0) | 1 (1.9) | ||
| More than 1 L | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | ||
| Sugar per hot drink, N (%) | none | 11 (73.3) | 12 (80.0) | 14 (87.5) | 37 (80.4) | 43 (86.0) | 40 (76.9) | p = 0.876 |
| 1 teaspoon | 3 (20.0) | 2 (13.3) | 1 (6.3) | 6 (13.0) | 6 (12.0) | 8 (15.4) | ||
| 2 teaspoons | 1 (6.7) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (6.3) | 2 (4.3) | 1 (2.0) | 3 (5.8) | ||
| >2 teaspoons | 0 (0.0) | 1 (6.7) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (2.2) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (1.9) | ||
| Caffeine consumption, N (%) | daily | 13 (76.5) | 13 (76.5) | 14 (87.5) | 40 (80.0) | 49 (96.1) | 45 (86.5) | p = 0.016 * |
| not daily | 4 (23.5) | 4 (23.5) | 2 (12.5) | 10 (20.0) | 2 (3.9) | 7 (13.5) | ||
| Fruit/vegetable juice, N (%) | never | 2 (13.3) | 6 (42.9) | 4 (25.0) | 12 (26.7) | 13 (26.0) | 24 (46.2) | p = 0.034 * |
| not daily | 7 (46.7) | 4 (28.6) | 11 (68.8) | 22 (48.9) | 30 (60.0) | 23 (44.2) | ||
| 1 glass daily (200 mL) | 3 (20.0) | 3 (21.4) | 0 (0.0) | 6 (13.3) | 6 (12.0) | 5 (9.6) | ||
| >1 glass daily | 3 (20.0) | 1 (7.1) | 1 (6.3) | 5 (11.1) | 1 (2.0) | 0 (0.0) | ||
| Portions of vegetables per day, N (%) | <1 portion | 5 (33.3) | 2 (13.3) | 1 (6.3) | 8 (17.4) | 6 (12.0) | 7 (13.5) | p = 0.982 |
| 1 portion | 4 (26.7) | 10 (66.7) | 6 (37.5) | 20 (43.5) | 20 (40.0) | 21 (40.4) | ||
| 2 portions | 3 (20.0) | 3 (20.0) | 5 (31.3) | 11 (23.9) | 15 (30.0) | 15 (28.8) | ||
| >2 portions | 3 (20.0) | 0 (0.0) | 4 (25.0) | 7 (15.2) | 9 (18.0) | 9 (17.3) | ||
| One portion of legumes, N (%) | never | 4 (26.7) | 4 (28.6) | 3 (18.8) | 11 (24.4) | 9 (18.0) | 14 (26.9) | p = 0.838 |
| once a week | 8 (53.3) | 5 (35.7) | 10 (62.5) | 23 (51.1) | 29 (58.0) | 25 (48.1) | ||
| ≥2 times a week | 3 (20.0) | 5 (35.7) | 3 (18.8) | 11 (24.4) | 12 (24.0) | 13 (25.0) | ||
| Portions of fruits per day, N (%) | <1 portion | 5 (33.3) | 3 (20.0) | 1 (6.3) | 9 (19.6) | 6 (12.0) | 12 (23.1) | p = 0.371 |
| 1 portion | 4 (26.7) | 8 (53.3) | 10 (62.5) | 22 (47.8) | 18 (36.0) | 20 (38.5) | ||
| 2 portions | 3 (20.0) | 3 (20.0) | 3 (18.8) | 9 (19.6) | 19 (38.0) | 16 (30.8) | ||
| >2 portions | 3 (20.0) | 1 (6.7) | 2 (12.5) | 6 (13.0) | 7 (14.0) | 4 (7.7) | ||
| Starch productions/cereal products per day, N (%) | never/not daily | 3 (20.0) | 2 (13.3) | 2 (12.5) | 7 (15.2) | 5 (10.0) | 4 (7.7) | p = 0.801 |
| 1–2 times per day | 9 (60.0) | 9 (60.0) | 11 (68.8) | 29 (63.0) | 35 (70.0) | 36 (69.2) | ||
| >2 times per day | 3 (20.0) | 4 (26.7) | 3 (18.8) | 10 (21.7) | 10 (20.0) | 12 (23.1) | ||
| Whole grain products, N (%) | never/once a week | 5 (33.3) | 9 (60.0) | 6 (37.5) | 20 (43.5) | 16 (31.4) | 13 (25.0) | p = 0.203 |
| 2–6 times a week | 4 (26.7) | 3 (20.0) | 5 (31.3) | 12 (26.1) | 11 (21.6) | 20 (38.5) | ||
| once daily | 5 (33.3) | 2 (13.3) | 5 (31.3) | 12 (26.1) | 20 (39.2) | 18 (34.6) | ||
| several times a day | 1 (6.7) | 1 (6.7) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (4.3) | 4 (7.8) | 1 (1.9) | ||
| Portions of milk and milk products per day, N (%) | <1 portion | 1 (6.7) | 5 (33.3) | 4 (25.0) | 10 (21.7) | 5 (9.8) | 12 (23.1) | p = 0.453 |
| 1–2 portions | 10 (66.7) | 9 (60.0) | 9 (56.3) | 28 (60.9) | 38 (74.5) | 34 (65.4) | ||
| 3 portions | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (12.5) | 2 (4.3) | 4 (7.8) | 3 (5.8) | ||
| >3 portions | 4 (26.7) | 1 (6.7) | 1 (6.3) | 6 (13.0) | 4 (7.8) | 3 (5.8) | ||
| Eggs per week, N (%) | none | 2 (13.3) | 5 (33.3) | 2 (12.5) | 9 (19.6) | 6 (11.8) | 14 (26.9) | p = 0.489 |
| 1–2 | 6 (40.0) | 6 (40.0) | 12 (75.0) | 24 (52.2) | 33 (64.7) | 24 (46.2) | ||
| 3 | 4 (26.7) | 3 (20.0) | 0 (0.0) | 7 (15.2) | 5 (9.8) | 6 (11.5) | ||
| >3 | 3 (20.0) | 1 (6.7) | 2 (12.5) | 6 (13.0) | 7 (13.7) | 8 (15.4) | ||
| Portions of meet per week (excl. sausage products), N (%) | none | 0 (0.0) | 1 (6.7) | 2 (12.5) | 3 (6.5) | 5 (9.8) | 7 (13.5) | p = 0.350 |
| 1–2 portions | 6 (40.0) | 7 (46.7) | 9 (56.3) | 22 (47.8) | 27 (52.9) | 24 (46.2) | ||
| 3 portions | 7 (46.7) | 4 (26.7) | 3 (18.8) | 14 (30.4) | 13 (25.5) | 8 (15.4) | ||
| >3 portions | 2 (13.3) | 3 (20.0) | 2 (12.5) | 7 (15.2) | 6 (11.8) | 13 (25.0) | ||
| Sausage products per week, N (%) | none | 3 (20.0) | 2 (13.3) | 7 (43.8) | 12 (26.1) | 24 (47.1) | 15 (28.8) | p = 0.262 |
| 1–2 portions | 8 (53.3) | 10 (66.7) | 5 (31.3) | 23 (50.0) | 17 (33.3) | 21 (40.4) | ||
| 3 portions | 1 (6.7) | 1 (6.7) | 3 (18.8) | 5 (10.9) | 5 (9.8) | 10 (19.2) | ||
| >3 portions | 3 (20.0) | 2 (13.3) | 1 (6.3) | 6 (13.0) | 5 (9.8) | 6 (11.5) | ||
| Offal products, N (%) | none | 8 (53.3) | 8 (53.3) | 11 (68.8) | 27 (58.7) | 34 (66.7) | 38 (73.1) | p = 0.349 |
| ≤1 portion per month | 7 (46.7) | 6 (40.0) | 5 (31.3) | 18 (39.1) | 14 (27.5) | 11 (21.2) | ||
| several portions per month | 0 (0.0) | 1 (6.7) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (2.2) | 3 (5.9) | 3 (5.8) | ||
| 1 portion or more per week | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.9) | ||
| Portions of fish per week, N (%) | none | 1 (6.7) | 0 (0.0) | 3 (18.8) | 4 (8.7) | 3 (5.9) | 7 (13.5) | p = 0.044 * |
| <1 portion | 5 (33.3) | 5 (33.3) | 10 (62.5) | 20 (43.5) | 13 (25.5) | 12 (23.1) | ||
| 1–2 portions | 9 (60.0) | 9 (60.0) | 3 (18.8) | 21 (45.7) | 33 (64.7) | 26 (50.0) | ||
| >2 portions | 0 (0.0) | 1 (6.7) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (2.2) | 2 (3.9) | 7 (13.5) | ||
| Butter/margarine daily, N (%) | none/not daily | 6 (42.9) | 6 (40.0) | 3 (18.8) | 15 (33.3) | 18 (36.7) | 24 (48.0) | p = 0.429 |
| <2 teaspoons | 5 (35.7) | 6 (40.0) | 3 (18.8) | 14 (31.1) | 15 (30.6) | 8 (16.0) | ||
| 2 teaspoons (=10 g) | 2 (14.3) | 3 (20.0) | 9 (56.3) | 14 (31.1) | 11 (22.4) | 14 (28.0) | ||
| >2 teaspoons | 1 (7.1) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (6.3) | 2 (4.4) | 5 (10.2) | 4 (8.0) | ||
| Types of mainly used oil (e.g., salad dressing, not for cooking/roasting), N (%) | olive oil | 12 (80.0) | 11 (73.3) | 14 (87.5) | 37 (80.4) | 34 (68.0) | 39 (78.0) | p = 0.208 |
| rapeseed oil | 5 (33.3) | 6 (40.0) | 7 (43.8) | 18 (39.1) | 19 (38.0) | 11 (22.0) | ||
| safflower oil | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (4.0) | 3 (6.0) | ||
| corn oil | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 3 (18.8) | 3 (6.5) | 2 (4.0) | 4 (8) | ||
| sunflower oil | 1 (6.7) | 3 (20.0) | 1 (6.3) | 5 (10.9) | 9 (18.0) | 10 (20.0) | ||
| peanut oil | 1 (6.7) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (2.2) | 2 (4.0) | 2 (4.0) | ||
| other oils | 0 (0.0) | 4 (26.7) | 0 (0.0) | 4 (8.7) | 11 (22.0) | 15 (30.0) | ||
| Types of mainly used oil/fat for cooking/roasting, N (%) | olive oil | 6 (40.0) | 4 (26.7) | 7 (43.8) | 17 (37.0) | 20 (40.0) | 17 (34.0) | p = 0.098 |
| rapeseed oil | 6 (40.0) | 10 (66.7) | 8 (50.0) | 24 (52.2) | 28 (56.0) | 26 (52.0) | ||
| safflower oil | 0 (0.0) | 1 (6.7) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (2.2) | 1 (2.0) | 0 (0.0) | ||
| corn oil | 4 (26.7) | 1 (6.7) | 6 (37.5) | 11 (23.9) | 5 (10.0) | 6 (12.0) | ||
| sunflower oil | 2 (13.3) | 4 (26.7) | 4 (25.0) | 10 (21.7) | 11 (22.0) | 21 (42.0) | ||
| peanut oil | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (4.0) | 1 (2.0) | ||
| margarine | 0 (0.0) | 2 (13.3) | 1 (6.3) | 3 (6.5) | 2 (4.0) | 2 (4.0) | ||
| coconut fat | 0 (0.0) | 1 (6.7) | 4 (25.0) | 5 (10.9) | 3 (6.0) | 1 (2.0) | ||
| others | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (12.5) | 2 (4.3) | 5 (10.0) | 3 (6.0) | ||
| Consumption of unsalted nuts or seeds, N (%) | never/rarely | 8 (57.1) | 12 (80.0) | 3 (18.8) | 23 (51.1) | 25 (52.1) | 34 (68.0) | p = 0.168 |
| daily—less than 1 handful | 5 (35.7) | 2 (13.3) | 12 (75.0) | 19 (42.2) | 16 (33.3) | 14 (28.0) | ||
| daily—1 handful | 1 (7.1) | 1 (6.7) | 1 (6.3) | 3 (6.7) | 7 (14.6) | 2 (4.0) | ||
| daily—more than 1 handful | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | 0 (0.0) | ||
| High-fat meals per week, N (%) | never/rarely | 7 (50.0) | 6 (40.0) | 7 (43.8) | 20 (44.4) | 33 (68.8) | 22 (44.0) | p = 0.015 * |
| 1–2 times | 6 (42.9) | 8 (53.3) | 9 (56.3) | 23 (51.1) | 15 (31.3) | 22 (44.0) | ||
| ≥3 times | 1 (7.1) | 1 (6.7) | 0 (0.0) | 2 (4.4) | 0 (0.0) | 6 (12.0) | ||
| Consumption of sweets or desserts, N (%) | never/rarely | 4 (28.6) | 3 (20.0) | 6 (37.5) | 13 (28.9) | 15 (31.3) | 12 (24.0) | p = 0.680 |
| 1–6 portions per week | 7 (50.0) | 5 (33.3) | 5 (31.3) | 17 (37.8) | 14 (29.2) | 22 (44.0) | ||
| 1 portion per day | 3 (21.4) | 6 (40.0) | 4 (25.0) | 13 (28.9) | 18 (37.5) | 13 (26.0) | ||
| several portions daily | 0 (0.0) | 1 (6.7) | 1 (6.3) | 2 (4.4) | 1 (2.1) | 3 (6.0) | ||
| Consumption of salty snacks, N (%) | never/rarely | 6 (40.0) | 12 (80.0) | 9 (56.3) | 27 (58.7) | 45 (88.2) | 26 (51.0) | p = 0.001 * |
| 1–6 portions per week | 8 (53.3) | 3 (20.0) | 6 (37.5) | 17 (37.0) | 4 (7.8) | 23 (45.1) | ||
| 1 portion per day / several portions daily | 1 (6.7) | 0 (0.0) | 1 (6.3) | 2 (4.3) | 2 (3.9) | 2 (3.9) | ||
RBD, rare bone disease; OI, osteogenesis imperfecta; HPP, hypophosphatasia;, XLH, X-linked hypophosphatemia; OPO, osteoporosis; CTRL, controls. Some respondents marked more than one type of oil; therefore percentages do not round up to 100%. Significant differences were marked with an asterisk.