Table 1.

Summary of included studies.

Study	Main Objective	Origin Country	Participants (Age in Years)	Instruments	Main Results and Conclusions
Basto-Pereira et al. (2016)	To examine the impact of various forms of ACEs on juvenile justice involvement, criminal behaviour persistence, and psychosocial issues in young adulthood.	Portugal	n = 315	-ACE -BSI -EUROHIS-QOL-8 -D-CRIM	1. + adversity and negative outcomes such as juvenile justice involvement, criminal persistence implies + psychosocial problems during early adulthood. 2. CSA is the strongest predictor of juvenile justice involvement and criminal persistence predicted psychosocial problems.
Basto-Pereira et al. (2022)	Investigated the correlation between ACEs and delinquent conduct among young adults residing in ten countries spanning five continents, considering gender, age, and cross-cultural disparities.	Portugal, Spain, France, Mozambique, South Africa, Brazil, Iraq, Palestine, Thailand, and Australia	n = 3797 Mage = 18.97 SD = 0.81	-HDI -ACE -CVI	1. The country of residence has a significant association with self-reported criminal variety CPA, CSA, PN, and household substance abuse during the first 18 years of life are predictors of criminal variety among young adults aged 18–20 in both HDI top and bottom tier countries. 2. The strongest predictor of criminal variety varied by gender and HDI ranking, with CSA being the strongest predictor for females and those in HDI top-tier countries, and physical abuse being the strongest predictor for males and those in HDI bottom-tier countries.
Burke et al. (2022)	Verify what is the relationship between childhood maltreatment and violent behaviour and to define if these effects are different for women and men.	USA	n = 29,718 Mage = 47.25	-Alcohol Use Disorder and Associated -Disabilities Interview Schedule-5 -CTQ -CTS	1. Women who have experienced ACEs have + risk for engaging in violent behaviour. 2. + ACEs implies + violent criminal behaviour. 3. Adults who have been exposed to ACEs have + emotional dysregulation and self-regulation deficits,—decision making, and + behavioural problems. 4. Childhood trauma can significantly hinder the development of executive function and ↑ violent, aggressive, or criminal behaviour.
Carvalho et al. (2019)	To investigate the influence of physical, sexual, and emotional abuse, as well as physical and emotional neglect experienced during childhood and adolescence, on (a) domains of psychopathic traits and (b) altruistic attitudes during early adulthood.	Portugal	n = 673 Mage = 18.90 SD = 0.82	-ACE -YPI-S -Altruistic Attitudes Scale -Social and Family Situation Questionnaire;	1. CPA is associated with the behavioural dimension of psychopathy. 2. CEA is linked with the callous/unemotional traits of psychopathy. 3. + ACEs implies + juvenile delinquency and adult crime. 4. CSA is associated with different dimensions of youth psychopathy, including traits of manipulation, dishonest charm, callousness, and unemotionality. 5. Abuse and neglect have a negative correlation with altruistic attitudes. 6. EN is particularly important in inhibiting the development of normative altruism, impacting both the affective and behavioural dimensions of altruistic attitudes. 7. + ACEs implies the ↑ of possessing altruistic attitudes and ↑ the exhibition of psychopathic traits in young adults.
Chopin et al. (2022)	To investigate how childhood victimisation may contribute to the formation of risk factors that heighten the probability of engaging in online sexual misconduct.	Canada	n = 199	-Interview about childhood victimisation and polyvictimisation of the sample.	1. + ACEs implies + criminogenic cognitions, antisocial behaviours, and sexual interests in children. The specific type of victimisation experienced also plays a role in the likelihood of these outcomes. 2. + childhood abuse implies + offence-supportive cognitions, substance abuse, and youth engagement in sexual offending among individuals involved in online sexual offending during adulthood. 3. + Childhood trauma implies + sexual interests in children and a sense of loneliness.
DeLisi et al. (2019)	Investigate background factors preceding adverse childhood experiences and childhood psychopathology.	USA	n = 863 Mage = 44.00	-ACE -Psychiatric Diagnoses	1. The association between ACEs and symptoms of ASPD is not significant when ACEs are summed, but a significant association is observed with the diagnostic history of the disorder. 2. The familial progression of ASPD and ACEs are linked to the early family environments of criminal offenders’ environments.
Donadio et al. (2021)	To investigate how ACEs predict adult attachment styles, alcohol use, and relationship status in formerly incarcerated Black and Latino men.	USA	n = 248	-ECR-R -AUDIT -TEC	1. Formerly incarcerated Black and Latino adult men are at a high risk of experiencing disrupted attachments, as incarcerated Black and Latino adult men have + risk of experiencing disrupted attachments. 2. + ACEs implies + probability of development anxious and avoidant insecure attachment styles in adulthood. 3. ACEs predict insecure attachment patterns in formerly incarcerated Black and Latino men.
Drury et al. (2019)	Investigate the hypothesis that SO is associated with CSA was tested in the current study.	USA	n = 863 Mage = 43.71 SD = 11.45	-ACE	1. + CSA implies future sexual offending.
Duin et al. (2020)	To enhance the understanding of how CH and ACEs can predict the functioning of young adults facing severe problems in various areas of life.	Netherlands	n = 696 Mage = 22.00 SD = 2.40	-CTQ-SF -MANSA	1. + ACEs implies worst QoL outcomes. 2. + ACEs and criminal history imply problems in social functioning of a young adult.
Edalati et al. (2020)	To determine whether the relationship between an individual’s cumulative ACE score and the probability of experiencing CJI and victimisation remains significant over time, even after receiving the HF intervention.	Canada	n = 1888 Mage = 41.00 SD = 11.00	-ACE -HSJSU	1. + cumulative ACE score implies + victimisation; + ACE scores are more likely to experience victimisation than to be involved in the criminal justice system. 2. The relationship between cumulative ACE score, victimisation, and CJI remained significant, regardless of whether the participants were in the HF or TAU. 3. Cumulative ACE score did not moderate the effects of the intervention.
Hill and Nathan (2008)	Find if it is uncertain whether the origins of severe violence in childhood differ depending on the circumstances in which the violence takes place.	UK	n = 54 Mage = 29.16 SD = 5.74	-Interview Self-report violence in adulthood. -Interview Officially recorded adult offending. -Interview Adult antisocial personality disorder. -Interview Childhood maltreatment. -Interview Childhood psychopathology.	1. + variability in violence, in violent offenders, implies + diagnoses of adult ASPD and + childhood conduct disorder. 2. + interparental violence implies + social violence and partner violence.
Hilton et al. (2019)	Verify the association between ACEs and criminal tendencies among IPV offenders.	Canada	n = 435 men Mage = 34.31 SD = 12.51	-ACE -Cornier–Lang Criminal History Score -PCL-R -VRAG	1. + ACEs implies + criminal propensity in all models except institutional assaults. 2. Among IPV offenders, ACEs implies risk of violent recidivism, due to the overlap of parental alcoholism and separation from parents. 3. No significant effect of IPV on ACEs or criminal propensity measures, except for a lower risk of violent recidivism associated with having an intimate relationship history.
James et al. (2020)	Determining whether ACEs with psychopathology relevant to physical and sexual violence, such as psychopathy and sexual sadism, can predict the type of aggression displayed in the commission of a sexual homicide.	France	n = 120 Mage = 30.30 SD = 10.90	-ACE -PCL -SeSaS	1. ACEs during 0 and 12 years implies + sexual homicide using reactive aggression. 2. ACEs implies + reactive aggression in sexual murderers. 3. Inadequate parental behaviour implies + reactive aggression, manifesting impulsive or anger-driven homicides in the sample.
Jones et al. (2018)	Using a feminist life course theory approach, investigate the associations between individual, cumulative, and clusters of ACEs and multiple forms of IPV in adulthood.	USA	n = 355 Mage = 36.60	-CTS-R -PMWI -ACE	1. + ACEs ↑ the likelihood of experiencing multiple forms of IPV. 2. + CSA ↑ the risk of experiencing adult physical, sexual, and psychological abuse. 3. + CN in women ↑ the likely to report adult sexual abuse. 4. + CSA and neglect predict IPV and + severe physical injury in adult abusive relationships. 5. Women with 5 or more ACEs ↑ the likely to report adult physical, sexual, and psychological abuse compared to those who had fewer ACEs (4 or fewer). 6. + ACEs and IPV in the pre-prison lives of women prisoners, which suggests that childhood abuse, neglect, and chaotic home environments are linked to IPV in adulthood, indicating that ACEs and IPV are significant risk factors for women’s offending and incarceration.
Jones et al. (2020)	Apply a feminist life course theoretical framework in analysing the correlation between individual, cumulative, and clusters of ACEs and the perpetration of violence in intimate adult relationships of incarcerated women.	USA and non-American native	n = 356	-CTS2 -Self-report questionnaire -ACE	1. Women prisoners + ACEs more likely to perpetrate physical violence against an adult intimate partner. 2. The abuse cluster of ACEs ↑ with physical violence; −neglect ACE + related to violence against an intimate partner for Native American women prisoners. 3. A chaotic home environment was associated with violence for non-Native American women prisoners.
Koolen and Vos (2022)	Investigating the correlation between ACEs and personality disorders among individuals with antisocial, borderline, or narcissistic personality disorders who have a HO.	Netherlands	n = 102 Mage = 38.30 SD = 9.90	-CTQ -SMI-R -SNAP-F	1. ACEs did not differentiate between personality disorders. 2. + CPA and CEA explain 41% of the variance of BPD. 3. PN predict NPD, explaining 33.1% of the variance.
Korsten and Vos (2022)	The significance of childhood neglect in the treatment of male inpatients convicted of violent offenses is underscored by this study. Additionally, the study adds to our comprehension of the notion of therapy alliance among individuals with criminal convictions.	Netherlands	n = 99 Mage = 37.70 SD = 9.90	-WAI -SNAP -PCL-R	1. Therapy alliance is related to treatment outcome, recidivism, and adherence to probation conditions. 2. Childhood neglect is prevalent in offender populations.
Lee et al. (2002)	To determine the general, shared, and distinct developmental risk factors associated with paedophilia, exhibitionism, rape, and multiple paraphilias.	Australia	n = 97	-Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale -Parental Acceptance-Rejection Questionnaire -Parental Bonding Instrument -Family Adaptability and Cohesion Scale II -Youth Self-Report -Sexual Abuse Scale -Physical Abuse Scale	1. + CEA, family dysfunction, childhood behaviour problems, and CSA implies the ↑ of risk factors for paraphilias. 2. + CEA and family dysfunction implies the ↑ of risk factors for paedophilia, exhibitionism, rape, or multiple paraphilias. 3. + CSA implies the ↑ of risk factor for paedophilia.
Levenson and Socia 2015)	To investigate how ACEs affect arrest patterns in a sample of sexual offenders.	USA	n = 740	-ACE -Interview about adult health, mental health, and behavioural outcomes. -Questions about the characteristics of the sex offense committed.	1. ACEs ↑ the risk of criminal behaviour problems in adulthood for sex offenders. These offenders had + ACEs indicating exposure to various childhood maltreatments and chaotic households. 2. + ACE scores were associated with + assortment of arrest items, that ↑ the likelihood of versatile criminal behaviour. 3. The largest effect of ACE score on the arrest scale item is for nonsexual assault. 4. CSA, EN, and domestic violence in the childhood home were predictors of the total number of sex crime arrests, but not for non-sexual arrests, total arrests, or criminal versatility. CSA rarely occurs in isolation and often overlaps with other negative childhood experiences.
Marotta (2021)	Examine the correlation between occurrences of physical and sexual violence in childhood, adulthood, and both phases, and the RR of engaging in violent, sexual, and violent/sexual offenses.	USA	n = 13,606 Mage = 35.3 SD = 0.09	-Interview about sexual and non-sexual violent offending, experiencing sexual and non-sexual physical abuse during childhood and adulthood, household dysfunction.	1. + CPA both in adulthood and childhood are associated with ↑ RR of violent crime. 2. + CPA implies + violent crime perpetration but not sexual crime perpetration. 3. CSA is 3 times greater among people convicted of sexual offenses (15.3%) compared to those convicted of violence only (4.1%) and more than 5 times greater than those convicted of all other crimes (2.9%). 4. ACEs were associated with ↑ risk of being convicted for a violent crime.
Moore and Tatman (2016)	The extent to which ACE scores could serve as a predictor of re-offense risk in convicted offenders was examined.	USA	n = 141 Mage = 33.99 SD = 10.40	-ACE -LSI-R	1. + ACE scores predict future incarceration, recidivism, violent behaviour, and substance abuse. 2. + ACE scores implies poor physical and mental health, chronic disease, premature mortality, and functional limitations. 3. + ACE scores implies + scores on the LSI-R.
Stinson et al. (2016)	To investigates the influence of developmental challenges in early life on the emergence of aggressive and criminal conduct, as well as psychiatric hospitalisation for mental illness, among a sample of individuals in forensic mental health.	USA	n = 381 Mage = 43.00 SD = 12.26	-The variables were taken from the Social Service Reports, Psychiatric diagnosis and related symptoms and Social Service Records, being coded as present (1) and absent (0), except for the out-of-home foster care placements where absent is coded as 2.	1. Foster care placements affect a child’s development and attachment to caregivers. 2. Early trauma and foster care placement implies + negatives outcomes.
Voith et al. (2017)	Explore how CPA, CSA, and CEA are related to interpersonal violence in adulthood, specifically physical, sexual, and psychological victimisation and perpetration.	USA	n = 423 Mage = 22.00 SD = 5.30	-CTS 2 -SES-SFV -SES-SFP -CTQ -SDS	1. + CPA, in boys, implies + psychological violence against their partners and report multiple forms of perpetration. 2. + CPA, in men, implies the ↑ of risk of sexual and psychological victimisation by intimate partners and the ↑ to report polyvictimisation. 3. + CSA, in men, led to increased likelihood of perpetrating physical and sexual violence against their partners, using multiple forms of violence, and being likely to be victims of physical IPV and sexual violence, where alcohol use was mediator. 4. + CEA, in men, implies the ↑ the odds of experiencing physical and psychological victimisation in their intimate relationships and ↑ likelihood to report clinically depressive symptoms in early adulthood. 5. ACEs ↑ the risk of victimisation and perpetration in adulthood, but do not determine it.

Note. ACE: Adverse Childhood Experience Questionnaire; ACEs: adverse childhood experiences; ASPD: antisocial personality disorder; AUDIT: Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test; BPD: borderline personality disorder; BSI: brief symptom inventory; CEA: childhood emotional abuse; CH: criminal history; CJI: criminal justice involvement; CN: childhood neglect; CPA: childhood physical abuse; CSA: childhood sexual abuse; CTQ: childhood trauma questionnaire; CTQ-SF: Childhood Trauma Questionnaire-Short form; CTS 2: Revised Conflict Tactics Scale; CTS: Conflict Tactics Scale; CTS-R: Revised Conflict Tactics Scale; CVI: Criminal Variety Index; D-CRIM: Self-report Questionnaire for measuring Delinquency and Crime; ECR-R: Experiences in Close Relationships-Revised; EN: emotional neglect; HDI: Human Development Index; HF: housing first; HO: History of Offending; HSJSU: Health Social, and Justice Service Use Inventory; IPV: intimate partner violence; LSI-R: Level of Service Inventory-Revised; MANSA: Manchester Short Assessment of Quality of Life; NPD: narcissistic personality disorder; PCL: Psychopathy Checklist; PCL-R: Psychopathy Checklist-Revised; PMWI: Psychological Maltreatment of Women Inventory; PN: physical neglect; QoL: quality of life; RR: relative risk; SDS: Marlowe–Crowne Social Desirability Scale; SeSaS: Severe Sexual Sadism Scale; SES-SFP: Sexual Experiences Survey-Short Form Perpetration; SES-SFV: Sexual Experiences Survey-Short Form Victimisation; SMI-R: Short version Schema Mode Inventory; SNAP: Schedule for Nonadaptive Personality SNAP-F: Schedule for Nonadaptive and Adaptive Personality; SO: sexual offending; TAU: treatment as usual; TEC: Traumatic Experience Checklist; UK: United Kingdom; USA: United States of America; VRAG: Violence Risk Appraisal Guide; WAI: working alliance inventory; YPI-S: Youth Psychopathic Inventory-Short Version. +: more: –: less; ↑: higher.