Table 3.
PTDS risk factor in adult earthquake survivors (community studies).
| PTSD RISK FACTORS FOR ADULT EARTHQUAKE SURVIVORS | ||||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHIC RISK FACTORS | References of secondary studies | No. primary studies | Total number of cases | PTSD measurement |
| Female gender | Aker (2006); Alipour & Ahmadi (2020); Cénat et al. (2020); Dai et al. (2016); Farooqui et al. (2017); Hong & Efferth (2016); KalantarMotamedi et al. (2012); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 38 | 74331 | DTS, TSSC, PCL-C, IES-R, MINI, TALS-SR, PCL-C, HTQ, DSM-IV, Breslao scale, PTSD-SS, LASC, SCID-I/P |
| Younger age | Alipour & Ahmadi (2020); Cénat et al. (2020); Dai et al. (2016) Farooqui et al. (2017); Hong & Efferth (2016); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 5 | 7707 | IES-R, TALS-SR, PCL-C |
| Middle age | Alipour & Ahmadi (2020); Dai et al. (2016); Hong & Efferth (2016); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 3 | 4637 | IES-R, PCL-C |
| Older age | Aker (2006); Alipour & Ahmadi (2020); Cénat et al. (2020); Dai et al. (2016); Farooqui et al. (2017); Hong & Efferth (2016); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 13 | 38890 | DTS, IES-R, SCID-I/NP, HTQ, DSM-IV, Braslao scale, TSSC, PCL-C, SCID I/P |
| Ethnic minority | Dai et al. (2016); Farooqui et al. (2017); KalantarMotamedi et al. (2012); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 3 | 3899 | HTQ, DSM-IV, LASC |
| Ethnic majority | Alipour & Ahmadi (2020); Dai et al. (2016); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 4 | 3284 | PCL-C |
| Married | Aker (2006); Dai et al. (2016); Farooqui et al. (2017); Hong & Efferth (2016); KalantarMotamedi et al. (2012); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 3 | 7415 | IES-R, DSM-IV, PTSD-SS |
| Unmarried or living alone | Dai et al. (2016); Farooqui et al. (2017); Hong & Efferth (2016); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 3 | 16397 | DTS, HTQ, DSM-IV, SCID-I/P |
| Divorced | Dai et al. (2016); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 2 | 11446 | HTQ, DSM-IV, PCL-C |
| Widowed | Aker (2006); Dai et al. (2016); Farooqui et al. (2017); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 3 | 12356 | HTQ, DSM-IV, PCL-C |
| No household income | Dai et al. (2016); Farooqui et al. (2017); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 2 | 2892 | HTQ, DSM-IV |
| Low income | Alipour & Ahmadi (2020); Dai et al. (2016); Farooqui et al. (2017); KalantarMotamedi et al. (2012); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 9 | 9187 | DTS, DSM-IV, MINI, HTQ, PCL-C, |
| Unemployed | Cénat et al. (2020); Dai et al. (2016); Farooqui et al. (2017); Tang et al. (2017) | 3 | 1936 | DTS, IES-R |
| Low education level | Aker (2006); Alipour & Ahmadi (2020); Cénat et al. (2020); Dai et al. (2016); Farooqui et al. (2017); Hong & Efferth (2016); KalantarMotamedi et al. (2012); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 16 | 39506 | TSSC, DTS, IES-R, PCL-C, PTSD-SS, LASC, SCID-I/P, DSM-IV |
| Living in rented accommodation | Aker (2006) | 1 | 430 | TSSC |
| Living in the countryside | Alipour & Ahmadi (2020) | 2 | 500 | PCL-C |
| Head of the family | Dai et al. (2016); Tang et al. (2017) | 1 | 300 | DTS |
| Nuclear family |
Alipour & Ahmadi (2020); Cénat et al. (2020); Dai et al. (2016); Farooqui et al. (2017) |
1 |
1291 |
TSSC |
| PRE-TRAUMA RISK FACTORS |
References of secondary studies |
No. primary studies |
Total number of cases |
PTSD measurement |
| History of mental ill-health | Aker (2006); Alipour & Ahmadi (2020); Dai et al. (2016); Farooqui et al. (2017); Tang et al. (2017) | 5 | 3273 | TSSC, DSM-IV |
| Chronic disease | Dai et al. (2016); Tang et al. (2017) | 1 | 957 | MINI |
| Previous trauma | Aker (2006); Alipour & Ahmadi (2020); Cénat et al. (2020); Dai et al. (2016); Farooqui et al. (2017); Tang et al. (2017) | 3 | 2634 | TSSC, DSM-IV, PCL |
| Psychological distress induced by stressful live events in the last month prior to EQ | Aker (2006); Farooqui et al. (2017); Tang et al. (2017) | 1 | 910 | DSM-IV |
| Negative affect in type D personality | Alipour & Ahmadi (2020); Dai et al. (2016); Liang et al. (2019) | 1 | 956 | IES-R |
| Two-week disease prevalence (ill in the previous two weeks) | Dai et al. (2016); Farooqui et al. (2017); Hong and Efferth (2016); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 2 | 3090 | PCL-C |
| Negative religious coping or maladaptive coping strategies | Cénat et al. (2020); Farooqui et al. (2017); Tang et al. (2017) | 3 | 737 | DTS, TSSC, SPRINT |
| Family/ friend/relative history of mental ill-health |
Aker (2006); Alipour & Ahmadi (2020); Cénat et al. (2020); Farooqui et al. (2017); Tang et al. (2017) |
2 |
2233 |
DSM-IV |
| PERI-TRAUMA RISK FACTORS |
References of secondary studies |
No. primary studies |
Total number of cases |
PTSD measurement |
| Being injured | Alipour & Ahmadi (2020); Cénat et al. (2020); Dai et al. (2016); Farooqui et al. (2017); Hong & Efferth (2016); KalantarMotamedi et al. (2012); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 8 | 30578 | CAPS, DSM-IV, PCL-C, SCID-I/P, IES-R, PCL-C |
| Being buried or trapped | Aker (2006); Farooqui et al. (2017); Hong & Efferth (2016); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 6 | 27503 | PCL-C, SCID-I/P, TSSC, IES-R |
| Witnessing someone buried, wounded or dying or horrendous scenes | Dai et al. (2016); Farooqui et al. (2017); Hong & Efferth (2016); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 9 | 45163 | PCL-C, PDS, IES-R, SCID-I/P |
| Damage to the building where the subject was at the time of the EQ | Alipour & Ahmadi (2020); Cénat et al. (2020); Dai et al. (2016); Farooqui et al. (2017) | 1 | 1291 | TSSC |
| Proximity to epicentre | Cénat et al. (2020); Dai et al. (2016); Hong & Efferth (2016) | 2 | 3213 | IES-R, TALS-SR |
| Highter degree of EQ exposure | Alipour and Ahmadi (2020); Dai et al. (2016); Hong & Efferth (2016); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 3 | 3232 | IES-R, DSM-IV, PCL-C |
| Exposure to a high extent of EQ shaking | Tang et al. (2017) | 1 | 196 | DSM-IV |
| Having been in serious danger | Farooqui et al. (2017); Tang et al. (2017) | 1 | 327 | CPL-C |
| Bereavement (loss child, family members, friends, neighbours) | Aker (2006); Alipour & Ahmadi (2020); Cénat et al. (2020); Dai et al. (2016); Farooqui et al. (2017); Hong & Efferth (2016); KalantarMotamedi et al. (2012); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 23 | 27844 | TSSC, IES-R, SCID I/NP, MINI, HTQ, DSM-IV, PDS, PCL-C, PTSD-SS |
| Family members or friends injured | Alipour & Ahmadi (2020); Cénat et al. (2020); Dai et al. (2016); Hong & Efferth (2016); KalantarMotamedi et al. (2012); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 2 | 1753 | DSM-IV, PTSD-SS |
| Guilt for someone's death or injury | Farooqui et al. (2017); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 2 | 687 | PCL-C |
| Fear during the EQ | Aker (2006); Alipour & Ahmadi (2020); Dai et al. (2016); Farooqui et al. (2017); Hong & Efferth (2016); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 9 | 7991 | TSSC, PCL-C |
| Perceived life threat | Aker (2006); Farooqui et al. (2017); Tang et al. (2017) | 1 | 910 | DSM-IV |
| Peritraumatic distress | Cénat et al. (2020); Dai et al. (2016); Farooqui et al. (2017); Tang et al. (2017) | 2 | 1522 | PCL-S, IES-R |
| Unusual smelling/other perception | Aker (2006); Farooqui et al. (2017); Tang et al. (2017) | 1 | 910 | DSM-IV |
| Dissociation, hyper-arousal and helplessness | Tang et al. (2017) | 1 | 1680 | Braslao scale |
| Negative religious coping or maladaptive coping strategies |
Cénat et al. (2020); Farooqui et al. (2017); Tang et al. (2017) |
3 |
737 |
DTS, TSSC, SPRINT |
| POST-TRAUMA RISK FACTORS |
References of secondary studies |
No. primary studies |
Total number of cases |
PTSD measurement |
| Operated | Farooqui et al. (2017); Hong & Efferth (2016); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 1 | 14207 | SCID I/P |
| Amputation | Tang et al. (2017) | 1 | 9556 | PCL-C |
| No regular income | Dai et al. (2016); Farooqui et al. (2017); Hong & Efferth (2016); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 2 | 3090 | PCL-C |
| Serious economic difficulties | Dai et al. (2016); Tang et al. (2017) | 1 | 957 | MINI |
| Job loss | Alipour & Ahmadi (2020); Cénat et al. (2020); Tang et al. (2017) | 1 | 1323 | DSM-IV TR |
| Material losses (e.g., possessions, livelihood, property, money) | Cénat et al. (2020); Dai et al. (2016); Hong & Efferth (2016); KalantarMotamedi et al. (2012); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 5 | 13171 | DSM-IIIR, PTSD-SS, PCL-C, PDS |
| Food and water shortages | KalantarMotamedi et al. (2012); Tang et al. (2017) | 1 | 298 | PCL-C |
| House damage or destroyed | Aker (2006); Alipour & Ahmadi (2020); Cénat et al. (2020); Dai et al. (2016); Farooqui et al. (2017); Hong and Efferth (2016); KalantarMotamedi et al. (2012); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 7 | 13716 | TSSC, IES-R, DTS, HTQ, DSM-IV |
| Living in temporary or prefabricated house or shelters | Alipour and Ahmadi (2020); Dai et al. (2016); Farooqui et al. (2017); KalantarMotamedi et al. (2012); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 6 | 10521 | DTS, HTQ, PCL-C |
| Displaced after the EQ | Dai et al. (2016); Hong & Efferth (2016); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 1 | 2525 | PLC-C |
| Relocation within the EQ region | Alipour and Ahmadi (2020) | 1 | 541 | TSSC |
| Loss of Church | KalantarMotamedi et al. (2012); Tang et al. (2017) | 1 | 298 | PCL-C |
| Social network change | Tang et al. (2017) | 1 | 216 | DSM-IV |
| Participation in rescue work | Aker (2006); Dai et al. (2016); Farooqui et al. (2017); Tang et al. (2017) | 4 | 12092 | TSSC, PCL-C |
| Areas with the worst destruction | Cénat et al. (2020); Tang et al. (2017) | 1 | 737 | DSM-III R |
| Family members missing | Dai et al. (2016); Hong & Efferth (2016); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 1 | 2525 | PCL-C |
| Receiving inadequate mental health support or only one time | Dai et al. (2016); Farooqui et al. (2017); Hong & Efferth (2016); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 2 | 3090 | PCL-C |
| Having sought medical service | Dai et al. (2016); Tang et al. (2017) | 1 | 442 | MINI |
| Low social support | Alipour & Ahmadi (2020); Cénat et al. (2020); Dai et al. (2016); Farooqui et al. (2017); Hong & Efferth (2016); KalantarMotamedi et al. (2012); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 18 | 25421 | CAPS, PCL-C, IES-R, DSM-IV TR, SPRINT, DSM-IV, LASC |
| Negative religious coping or maladaptive coping strategies | Cénat et al. (2020); Farooqui et al. (2017); Tang et al. (2017) | 3 | 737 | DTS, TSSC, SPRINT |
| Traumatic experiences after EQ | Liang et al. (2019) | 1 | 1369 | IES-R |
| Poor self-perceived health status | Dai et al. (2016); Hong & Efferth (2016); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 2 | 7444 | IES-R |
| Grief due to family loss | Tang et al. (2017) | 1 | 216 | DSM-IV |
| Lack of sense of control over life | Alipour & Ahmadi (2020). | 1 | 541 | TSSC |
| Bad subjective feeling of economic status | Alipour & Ahmadi (2020); Farooqui et al. (2017) | 1 | 624 | SCID-I/P |
| Hopelessness | Tang et al. (2017) | 1 | 361 | PCL |
| Persistent fear of aftershocks | Tang et al. (2017) | 1 | 91 | IES-R |
| Anticipatory fear of future EQ | Alipour & Ahmadi (2020) | 1 | 541 | TSSC |
| Impairment of working memory backward | Tang et al. (2017) | 1 | 91 | IES-R |
| Acute stress disorder in the first 4 week after the EQ | Tang et al. (2017) | 1 | 91 | IES-R |
| Psychological stress after the EQ | Alipour & Ahmadi (2020); Farooqui et al. (2017) | 1 | 624 | SCID-I/P |
| Depression | Dai et al. (2016); Hong & Efferth (2016); Liang et al. (2019); Tang et al. (2017) | 1 | 6075 | IES-R |
| Sleep disturbance | Tang et al. (2017) | 1 | 216 | DSM-IV |
Note: The word earthquake has been abbreviated as EQ.