Table 2.

The clinical potential of mesenchymal stem cells

Application	Effects	Ref.
Musculoskeletal disorders	MSCs have shown great promise in treating musculoskeletal conditions, including osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, and bone fractures. Their ability to differentiate into bone and cartilage cells and their anti-inflammatory properties make them valuable for tissue repair and regeneration	[28]
Cardiovascular diseases	MSCs exhibit cardio-protective effects and can enhance cardiac repair following myocardial infarction. Clinical trials have explored their potential for improving heart function, reducing scar formation, and stimulating angiogenesis	[29]
Neurological disorders	MSCs hold potential for treating neurodegenerative conditions such as Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, and spinal cord injuries. They promote neuroprotection, neural differentiation, and the secretion of neurotrophic factors, fostering neural tissue repair	[30]
Autoimmune disorders	In autoimmune diseases like multiple sclerosis and systemic lupus erythematosus, MSCs' immunomodulatory properties help suppress aberrant immune responses and reduce disease severity. They promote tolerance and reduce inflammation	[31,32]
GVHD	MSCs have demonstrated effectiveness in managing GVHD, a potentially fatal complication of hematopoietic stem cell transplantation. They modulate immune reactions, aiding in GVHD prevention and treatment	[33]
IBD	MSCs are under investigation for their role in managing Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. They promote mucosal healing, reduce inflammation, and regulate the immune system within the gut	[34]
Diabetes	MSCs hold the potential for treating type 1 diabetes by promoting pancreatic beta-cell regeneration and modulating the autoimmune response that leads to beta-cell destruction	[35]
Wound healing and dermatological conditions	MSCs facilitate wound healing by enhancing tissue regeneration and reducing scar formation. They are explored for treating skin conditions like chronic ulcers and epidermolysis bullosa	[36]
Lung disorders	In conditions like COPD and idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis, MSCs can mitigate inflammation, promote lung tissue repair, and enhance pulmonary function	[37]

COPD: Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; GVHD: Graft-versus-host disease; IBD: Inflammatory bowel disease; MSCs: Mesenchymal stem cells.