Fig. 5. Inverse design results for the FE-derived target shapes based on given voxel patterns.

From left to right: intuitive or random designs, the corresponding FE-derived target shapes (green), optimal designs, the corresponding actuated shapes predicted by ML (blue grid) and FE (orange grid) plotted against the target (gray surface), approximation error maps of the actuated shapes by FE with the maximum and average error values (relative to the edge length), and experimental comparisons of 4D-printed, actuated shapes of the given and optimal designs. Experimental results for the three targets are also shown in Supplementary Movies 1–3, respectively. All scale bars: 10 mm.