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. 2024 Jul 2;14:15084. doi: 10.1038/s41598-024-65529-9

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© The Author(s) 2024

Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

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(a) A thermal distribution model of EYT glass given a water droplet placed on the top surface with a temperature of 289.1 K. (b) The ideal heat transfer model and PSF calculations for the temperature distribution along the top surface of the glass given that all other surfaces are set to an ambient room temperature of 294 K. (c) The maximum measurable temperature difference for a harmonic oscillating heat source at varying frequency regimes. The heat source is centred at 294.1 K with an amplitude of 5 K (inset 1 Hz and 10 Hz) where we show measurements above $\approx$ 1 Hz have the least variance in temperature suggesting the temporal limitations of the system are from 1 Hz and below.