Extended Data Fig. 9. NPF rates as a function of height AGL over Eastern China and India, which are parts of the Asian monsoon region, under the best-case scenario and a sensitivity scenario that assumes that NH₃ concentration accumulates in a small fraction of a model grid.

White lines represent the total NPF rates of all mechanisms at a diameter of 1.7 nm (J_1.7, on a log scale) and the coloured areas represent the relative contributions of different mechanisms, both averaged in 2016 over the regions specified in Extended Data Fig. 1b. For a scenario intermediate between the best-case simulation and the above sensitivity simulation, the contribution of H₂SO₄–HNO₃–NH₃ nucleation could be even higher, because the limitation of H₂SO₄ availability may not be as strong as in the above sensitivity simulation.