Table 2. Associations Between Environmental Toxicants (62 Exposures) and Depressive Symptoms in 3427 Adults (ExWAS Analysis).
| Exposure family by toxicant exposure | Processing | Median (IQR) | Model 1a | Model 2b | ||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| OR (95% CI) | P valuec | OR (95% CI) | P valuec | |||
| Acrylamide and glycidamide | ||||||
| Acrylamide | log(ln) | 42.9 (32.8-64.2) | 1.18 (1.09-1.28) | <.001 | 1.14 (1.05-1.24) | .007 |
| Glycidamide | log(ln) | 38.4 (28.1-54.5) | 1.15 (1.06-1.25) | .002 | 1.10 (1.01-1.20) | .07 |
| Speciated arsenics | ||||||
| Arsenobetaine | 2 Categories | NA | 0.97 (0.83-1.14) | .79 | 1.02 (0.86-1.20) | .87 |
| Arsenocholine | 2 Categories | NA | 0.87 (0.70-1.07) | .22 | 0.90 (0.72-1.12) | .43 |
| Arsenous acid | 2 Categories | NA | 0.83 (0.71-0.98) | .04 | 0.90 (0.76-1.07) | .34 |
| Dimethylarsinic acid | log(ln) | 3.5 (2.2-5.7) | 0.95 (0.86-1.05) | .38 | 0.95 (0.86-1.06) | .48 |
| Monomethylarsonic acid | 2 Categories | NA | 0.88 (0.75-1.04) | .17 | 0.95 (0.81-1.13) | .65 |
| Ethylene oxide | ||||||
| Ethylene oxide | log(ln) | 21.1 (15.1-42.2) | 1.23 (1.15-1.31) | <.001 | 1.17 (1.09-1.25) | <.001 |
| Formaldehyde | ||||||
| Formaldehyde | log(ln) | 132.0 (121.0-144.0) | 1.01 (0.94-1.09) | .79 | 1.02 (0.94-1.11) | .65 |
| Iodine | ||||||
| Iodine | log(ln) | 124.3 (76.9-222.9) | 0.98 (0.89-1.09) | .79 | 0.94 (0.84-1.05) | .37 |
| Metals | ||||||
| Copper | log(ln) | 115.1 (99.0-133.6) | 1.24 (1.12-1.37) | <.001 | 1.04 (0.93-1.17) | .55 |
| Selenium | log(ln) | 128.8 (118.9-139.8) | 0.90 (0.82-0.99) | .05 | 0.95 (0.86-1.05) | .45 |
| Zinc | log(ln) | 80.4 (70.9-90.4) | 0.88 (0.79-0.97) | .02 | 0.93 (0.83-1.04) | .3 |
| Barium | log(ln) | 1.1 (0.6-2.0) | 0.93 (0.84-1.02) | .16 | 0.94 (0.85-1.04) | .34 |
| Cadmium | log(ln) | 0.2 (0.1-0.4) | 1.23 (1.10-1.37) | <.001 | 1.13 (0.99-1.28) | .12 |
| Cobalt | log(ln) | 0.4 (0.3-0.6) | 1.10 (1.00-1.21) | .08 | 1.02 (0.91-1.13) | .83 |
| Cesium | log(ln) | 4.2 (3.1-5.9) | 0.91 (0.82-1.01) | .09 | 0.91 (0.81-1.01) | .14 |
| Mercury | 2 categories | NA | 0.93 (0.79-1.09) | .46 | 1.01 (0.85-1.20) | .92 |
| Manganese | 2 categories | NA | 1.32 (1.11-1.56) | .002 | 1.21 (1.02-1.45) | .07 |
| Molybdenum | log(ln) | 37.2 (24.8-54.4) | 0.94 (0.85-1.03) | .23 | 0.93 (0.84-1.03) | .22 |
| Lead | log(ln) | 0.3 (0.2-0.5) | 1.12 (1.01-1.24) | .06 | 1.05 (0.94-1.18) | .48 |
| Antimony | log(ln) | 0 (0-0.1) | 1.17 (1.07-1.28) | .002 | 1.09 (0.99-1.21) | .13 |
| Tin | log(ln) | 0.4 (0.2-0.9) | 1.29 (1.17-1.42) | <.001 | 1.16 (1.04-1.30) | .02 |
| Strontium | log(ln) | 96.2 (59.4-148.8) | 0.99 (0.90-1.08) | .79 | 0.99 (0.90-1.09) | .92 |
| Thallium | log(ln) | 0.2 (0.1-0.2) | 0.87 (0.79-0.96) | .008 | 0.89 (0.80-0.99) | .07 |
| Tungsten | log(ln) | 0.1 (0-0.1) | 1.11 (1.00-1.22) | .06 | 1.08 (0.97-1.20) | .22 |
| Uranium | log(ln) | 0 (0-0) | 1.22 (1.11-1.34) | <.001 | 1.17 (1.06-1.30) | .01 |
| Nicotine metabolites | ||||||
| TNE-2 | log(ln) | 0 (0-1.3) | 1.51 (1.37-1.67) | <.001 | 1.42 (1.26-1.59) | <.001 |
| Total cotinine | log(ln) | 0.5 (0.2-86.1) | 1.44 (1.31-1.58) | <.001 | 1.33 (1.20-1.49) | <.001 |
| Total hydroxycotinine | log(ln) | 0.9 (0.3-157.2) | 1.51 (1.37-1.67) | <.001 | 1.41 (1.26-1.59) | <.001 |
| PAH | ||||||
| 1-Napthol | log(ln) | 1392.5 (708.1-4718.5) | 1.39 (1.26-1.54) | <.001 | 1.28 (1.15-1.42) | <.001 |
| 2-Napthol | log(ln) | 5664.4 (2898.7-10 933.4) | 1.42 (1.26-1.59) | <.001 | 1.21 (1.07-1.37) | .008 |
| 3-Hydroxyfluorene | log(ln) | 71.7 (42.5-189.7) | 1.30 (1.19-1.43) | <.001 | 1.21 (1.09-1.34) | .001 |
| 2-Hydroxyfluorene | log(ln) | 174.8 (109.8-382.4) | 1.39 (1.27-1.53) | <.001 | 1.27 (1.14-1.40) | <.001 |
| 1-Hydroxyphenanthrene | log(ln) | 104.6 (69.1-169.7) | 1.22 (1.10-1.35) | <.001 | 1.13 (1.01-1.26) | .06 |
| 1-Hydroxypyrene | log(ln) | 131.6 (80.5-225.0) | 1.27 (1.14-1.41) | <.001 | 1.15 (1.03-1.29) | .04 |
| 2- and 3-Hydroxyphenanthrene | log(ln) | 127.5 (82.8-209.0) | 1.26 (1.14-1.40) | <.001 | 1.16 (1.03-1.29) | .03 |
| Perchlorate, nitrate, and thiocyanate | ||||||
| Nitrate | log(ln) | 42 911.3 (30 973.3-63 739.6) | 1.01 (0.92-1.10) | .92 | 1.04 (0.95-1.14) | .52 |
| Thiocyanate | log(ln) | 1049.0 (532.2-2212.7) | 1.18 (1.07-1.29) | .002 | 1.10 (1.00-1.22) | .10 |
| Perchlorate | log(ln) | 2.6 (1.6-4.3) | 0.96 (0.87-1.07) | .54 | 0.96 (0.86-1.07) | .54 |
| VOC metabolites | ||||||
| 2,2DCVMA | 2 categories | NA | 1.04 (0.89-1.22) | .66 | 1.35 (0.80-2.27) | .34 |
| 2MHA | log(ln) | 31.8 (14.8-73.1) | 1.16 (1.04-1.29) | .01 | 1.14 (1.02-1.28) | .05 |
| 3 and 4 MHA | log(ln) | 189.7 (94.1-508.0) | 1.29 (1.14-1.45) | <.001 | 1.25 (1.09-1.42) | .005 |
| AAMA | log(ln) | 50.9 (31.8-90.0) | 1.20 (1.09-1.32) | <.001 | 1.14 (1.02-1.26) | .04 |
| AMCC | log(ln) | 145.1 (78.3-262.9) | 1.29 (1.16-1.43) | <.001 | 1.17 (1.04-1.31) | .02 |
| ATCA | log(ln) | 121.9 (60.8-227.2) | 1.09 (0.98-1.21) | .13 | 0.96 (0.85-1.08) | .55 |
| BMA | log(ln) | 6.5 (4.0-11.4) | 0.98 (0.89-1.07) | .67 | 0.92 (0.84-1.02) | .19 |
| BPMA | log(ln) | 3.9 (1.7-9.8) | 0.89 (0.79-0.99) | .05 | 0.92 (0.82-1.03) | .24 |
| CEMA | log(ln) | 97.2 (61.9-161.1) | 1.40 (1.27-1.54) | <.001 | 1.29 (1.17-1.43) | <.001 |
| CYMA | log(ln) | 1.7 (1.0-8.7) | 1.28 (1.20-1.37) | <.001 | 1.22 (1.14-1.31) | <.001 |
| DHBMA | log(ln) | 303.3 (232.3-400.9) | 1.20 (1.10-1.30) | <.001 | 1.12 (1.02-1.23) | .04 |
| GAMA | 2 Categories | NA | 1.37 (1.17-1.60) | <.001 | 1.31 (1.11-1.55) | .005 |
| HEMA | 2 Categories | NA | 1.35 (1.16-1.58) | <.001 | 1.27 (1.08-1.50) | .01 |
| 2HPMA | log(ln) | 27.8 (17.7-51.3) | 1.21 (1.10-1.32) | <.001 | 1.19 (1.08-1.30) | .002 |
| 3HPMA | log(ln) | 238.0 (146.2-460.5) | 1.28 (1.17-1.40) | <.001 | 1.22 (1.11-1.35) | <.001 |
| MA | log(ln) | 133.0 (93.0-196.2) | 1.25 (1.14-1.36) | <.001 | 1.16 (1.06-1.28) | .007 |
| MHBMA2 | 2 Categories | NA | 2.02 (1.63-2.50) | <.001 | 1.74 (1.38-2.18) | <.001 |
| MHBMA3 | log(ln) | 4.7 (2.9-9.6) | 1.31 (1.20-1.43) | <.001 | 1.22 (1.11-1.34) | <.001 |
| PHEMA | 2 Categories | NA | 1.35 (1.16-1.58) | <.001 | 1.21 (1.03-1.43) | .05 |
| PGA | log(ln) | 201.7 (144.6-289.9) | 1.15 (1.06-1.26) | .002 | 1.08 (0.99-1.18) | .16 |
| PMA | 2 Categories | NA | 1.00 (0.85-1.17) | .97 | 0.98 (0.83-1.16) | .83 |
| HPMMA | log(ln) | 214.3 (148.7-427.0) | 1.31 (1.21-1.43) | <.001 | 1.22 (1.11-1.33) | <.001 |
Abbreviations: 2,2DCVMA, N-acetyl-S-(2,2-dichlorovinyl)-l-cysteine; AAMA, 2-carbamoylethylmercapturic acid; AMCC, methylcarbamoylmercapturate; ATCA, 2-aminothiazoline-4-carboxylic acid; BMA, benzylmercapturic acid; BPMA, N-acetyl-S-(n-propyl)-l-cysteine; CEMA, N-acetyl-S-(2-carboxyethyl)-l-cysteine; CYMA, N-acetyl-S-(2-cyanoethyl)-l-cysteine; DHBMA, dihydroxy-butyl-mercapturic acid; ExWAS, exposome-wide association study; GAMA, carbamoyl-2-hydroxyethylmercapturate; HEMA, 2-hydroxyethylmercapturic acid; HPMA, hydroxypropylmercapturic acid; HPMMA, 3-hydroxy-1-methyl-propylmercapturic acid; MA, mandelic acid; MHA, methylhippuric acid; MHBMA, N-acetyl-S-(2-hydroxy-3-butenyl)-l-cysteine; NA, not applicable; OR, odds ratio; PAH, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon; PGA, polyglutamic acid; PHEMA, poly(2-hydroxyethyl methacrylate); PMA, phenylmercapturic acid; TNE-2, total nicotine equivalent-2; VOC, volatile organic compound.
a
Unadjusted model.
b
Constructed by adjusting for sex, age, race and Hispanic ethnicity, educational level, the ratio of family income to poverty, body mass index, sleep duration, alcohol consumption, estimated glomerular filtration rate, sample collection time, 6-month survey period, and survey cycles.
c
Adjusted to control the false discovery rate at 5%.