Fig. 9.

Schematic illustration of the possible protective mechanism of caffeic acid for diabetic neuropathy. This figure presents a schematic overview of how caffeic acid may confer protective effects against diabetic neuropathy. According to our findings, caffeic acid contributes to the mitigation of diabetic neuropathy symptoms through the activation of the IGF-1 signaling pathway in the spinal cord. This activation is associated with a decrease in spinal cord oxidative damage and inflammation, illustrating the compound's potential protective benefits.