Table 2.
Detection methods of schistosomes and their applications.
| Method | Principles/Applications | References |
|---|---|---|
| Urine filtration or sedimentation | Use of microscope after filtration or sedimentation of samples to determine the intensity of Schistosoma mansoni and S. haematobium | [75] |
| Kato Katz | Use of microscope to examine schistosome eggs to identify the intensity of S. mansoni and S. haematobium in urine and stool samples | [76] |
| Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) | Use of species-specific primers to determine low levels of DNA from schistosome samples | [3] |
| Formol-ether concentration technique (FECT) | Use of centrifuge to examine schistosome contaminated stool samples | [74] |
| Circulating cathodic antigen (CCA) and circulating anodic antigen (CAA) | Use of Schistosoma circulating antigens in urine or stool samples to detect decrease in levels from blood circulation into urine after treatment by praziquantel | [77] |
| Point of care test (POCT) | Diagnostic test for S. haematobium and S. mansoni in stool samples | [74] |
| Miracidia hatching technique (MHT) | Use of eggs present in stool samples using microscope by hatching of miracidia from ova to examine eggs in stool samples | [78,79] |
| Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) | Use of circulating anodic antigens to examine face, gut or shin samples contaminated with schistosome | [80] |
| OCTAM | Use of glycol-derivative to image the liver with prolonged infection to evaluate the hepatic function after infection | [81] |
| Positron emission tomography (PET) | Use of gamma rays produced by radionuclide tracer to detect in vivo and the assess worm burden | [81] |
| Fluorescence molecular tomography (FMT) | Fluorochrome-based infrared probes are used to view intravascular schistosomes | [82] |
| Intravital microscopy (IVM) | Use of microscopy to study biological systems in vivo | [83] |
| Confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) | Using laser technology for scanning eggs for diagnosing schistosomiasis in mucosa and colons | [84] |
| Recombinase polymerase amplification (RPA) assay | Using amplification of the Dra1 DNA region of S. haematobium to identify low amounts of S. haematobium and S. japonicum | [85,86] |
| Computed tomography (CT scan) | Scanning of ascites, dilated collateral arteries, splenomegaly for chronic schistosomiasis that have anomalous patterns of egg calcification and damage to organs | [87] |
| MR scan | The hepatosplenic changes visualized by scanning of system for spinal and cerebral schistosomiasis | [88] |
| Indirect immunofluorescence antibody test (IFAT) | Use of antigens such as membrane bound antigens and gut associated antigens and read on a fluorescence microscope to detect schistosome eggs in stool, urine, rectal and bladder biopsies | [89] |
| Indirect hemagglutination assay (IHA) | Antigens of S. mansoni worms based on indirect haemagglutination used in the detection of antibodies in sera of S. mansoni | [90] |
| Colloidal dye immunofiltration assay (CDIFA) | A serological technique to detect S. japonicum in serum | [91] |
| Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) | Uses specific primers from both inner and outer parts to target a particular gene for amplification of DNA of schistosomes in stool, urine and serum | [92] |
| Environmental DNA (eDNA) | Use of species-specific TaqMan quantitative PCR assay to detect the environmental stages of S. mansoni in aquatic environment | [93] |
| Ultrasonography | Demonstrates schistosomal lesions in the hepatic parenchyma to provide direct information about lesions in target organs, their patterns and regression after treatment | [94] |