Table 1.
Representative clinically-used or investigated biomarkers for imaging hypoxia.
| Biomarkers | Imaging methods | Refs |
|---|---|---|
| Hypoxic biological features | 2-nitroimidazole compounds-based PET tracers (18F-FMISO, 18F-FETNIM, and 18F-FAZA) or SPECT tracers | 28 |
| 64Cu-ATSM PET tracer | 29 | |
| 99mTc-labelled SPECT tracer | 30 | |
| 123I-IAZA SPECT tracer | 31 | |
| pO2 | 19F-relaxometry | 32 |
| EPRI oximetry | 33 | |
| Fiber-optic oxygen-sensing devices | 34 | |
| Perfusion | Dynamic contrast enhanced MRI | 35 |
| Computed tomography | 36 | |
| Hemoglobin-oxygen saturation | R2* (Spin dephasing rates) from MRI BOLD sequence | 37 |
| Photoacoustic imaging | 38 |
PET: positron emission tomography; FMISO: fluoromisonidazole; FETNIM: fluoroerythronitroimidazole; FAZA: fluoroazomycin arabinoside; SPECT: single photon emission computed tomography; Cu-ATSM: Copper (II)-diacetyl-bis(4-methyl-3-thiosemicarbazone); IAZA: iodoazomycin arabinoside; pO2: intratumoral oxygen partial pressure; EPRI: electron paramagnetic resonance imaging; BOLD: blood-oxygen-level-dependent.