Table 5.

In vivo effects of ginger phenolics in animal models of autoinflammatory and autoimmune diseases.

Compounds	Models	Administration routes	Observed effects	Potential mechanisms	Ref.
6-, 8-, and 10-gingerols	DSS-induced rat colitis model	intraperitoneal	• attenuated DSS-induced symptoms of colitis • accelerated mucosal damage healing • decreased neutrophil infiltration in the colon • reduced TNF and IL-1β serum levels	• increased SOD activity • decreased MPO activity	(67)
6-gingerol	DSS-induced mouse colitis model	oral	• decreased DSS-induced weight loss • decreased IL-17 levels and increased IL-10 levels both in serum and bowel tissue	• inhibited IκB phosphorylation • suppressed NF-κB nuclear translocation in the bowel tissue	(68)
6-shogaol	DSS-induced mouse colitis model	oral	• alleviated colitis symptoms • accelerated wound repair • decreased the levels of TNF, IL-6, IL-1β and iNOS	• increased HO-1 and NRF2 expression in the colon tissues	(69)
6-, 8-, 10-gingerols and 6-, 8-, 10-shogaols	DSS-induced mouse colitis model	oral	• prevent DSS-induced weight loss, colon length reduction • reduced IL-1β, IL-6 and IFN-γ serum levels • downregulated iNOS and COX-2 levels	• reduced NF-κB phosphorylation	(70)
6-gingerol	EAE mice	intraperitoneal	• decreased inflammatory cell infiltration and demyelination in spinal cord and CNS • lowered number of inflammatory cells in the spleen • inhibited Th17 polarization	–	(53)
6-shogaol, 6-paradol	EAE mice	oral	• decreased demyelination, cell accumulation and TNF expression in spinal cord • reduced astrogliosis and microglial activation	–	(72)
6-gingerol	lupus and APS mouse model	intraperitoneal	• reduced serum level of anti-dsDNA, cell-free DNA, MPO-DNA complexes, TNF, IFN-γ • suppressed netosis • inhibited thrombosis in APS	–	(47)
8-shogaol	AIA rats	intraperitoneal	• reduced paw thickness and weight loss • improved walking • decreased bone erosion and cellular infiltration to the joints • reduced TNF, IL-6 and IL-8 levels in serum and synovial tissues	–	(76)