Table 3.
Demographics of included studies.
| Study | Country | Study design | Describe population | Age | Sex ‐number of women/girls | Sex ‐number of men/boys | Overall quality rating |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Al‐Sejari (2021) | Kuwait | Cross sectional | General public (n = 1413) | Ranged from 18 to 99 years (mean = 39) | 69.2% of sample | 30.4% of sample | Low risk of bias |
| Al‐Shammary (2021) | Saudi Arabia | Cross sectional | General public (n = 400) | Mean 37.6 (10.8) | 203 | 197 | Low risk of bias |
| Al‐Wutayd (2021) | Saudi Arabia | Cross sectional | General public (n = 1323) | 30–39: (27%) | 645 (49%) female | 678 (51%) were males, | Unclear risk of bias |
| Apanga (2021) | Ghana | Cross sectional | Pregnant women (n = 527) | M 26 (SD 5.9) | 100% | 0 | Low risk of bias |
| Barrett (2021) | UK | Cross sectional | UK university students (n = 293) | 73.4% 18–25 years; 26.6% over 25 | 189 | 100 | Low risk of bias |
| Bogg (2020) | USA | Cross sectional | General public (n = 500) | M 45.4, SD 15.78 | 257 | 243 | Low risk of bias |
| Bruine de Bruin et al. ( 2020 ) | USA | Cross sectional | General public (n = 6684) | Adults 20% 65 or over | 3458 52% | 48% 3226 | Low risk of bias |
| Bruine de Bruin et al. (2020) | US | Cross sectional | General public (n = 5517) | 20% were aged 65 and older | not reported | 48% male | High risk of bias |
| Callaghan (2021) | USA | Cross sectional | General public (n = 5009) | Not reported | not reported | Not reported | Low risk of bias |
| Cowling et al. (2020) | Hong Kong | Cross sectional | General public (n = 12,965) | 18–24: 1371 (13%) 25–34: 1210 (12%) 35–44: 1915 (19%) | 61% 6308 | 39% 4026 | Low risk of bias |
| Dixon et al. (2022) | United Kingdom ‐ Scotland | Cross sectional | General public (n = 2969) | 16–24 years old: 273 25–34 years old: 385 35–44 years old: 360 45–54 years old: 540 55–64 years old: 607 65+ years old: 804 | 1,765 59.6% | 1198 40.4% | Low risk of bias |
| Dwipayanti (2021) | Indonesia | Cross sectional | General public (n = 896) | M 35 | 543 (60.60%) | 353 (39.40%) | Unclear risk of bias |
| Fujii (2021) | Italy, Japan, Korea, USA, China, UK | Cross sectional | General public (n = 5945) | 3045 women | 2900 men | Unclear risk of bias | |
| Graupensperger (2021) | United States | Cross sectional | Young adult (n = 539) (recruited from university) | 19.5 years (SD = 0.8) | 58.8% women | Not reported | High risk of bias |
| Haliwa et al. (2020) | USA | Cross sectional | General public (n = 353) | Mean = 41.47 years, SD = 12.49, range: 19–84 | 59.8% women | Not reported | Low risk of bias |
| Hsing (2021) | USA | Cross sectional |
General public (n = 71,851) (From US, Mexico, Hong Kong and Taiwan) |
18–24 years: n (%) US 110 (3.6) Mexico 507 (12.9) Hong Kong 83 (7.0) Taiwan 4969 (7.8) |
US 1683 (55.0) Mexico 2031 (51.6) Hong Kong 602 (50.4) Taiwan 31,407 (49.6) |
US 1351 (44.2) Mexico 1867 (47.4) Hong Kong 562 (47.1) Taiwan 30,034 (47.4) |
Unclear risk of bias |
| Iqbal (2021) | Pakistan | Cross sectional | General public (n = 1789) |
18–25 (49.52%) 26–30 (27%) 31–40 (19.01%) >40 years: (4.47%) |
949 (53.05%) | 840 (46.95%) | High risk of bias |
| Jang et al. (2020) | Korea | Cross sectional | General public (n = 1,004) | 19–29: (17.8%) | 50.2% | 49.8% | Low risk of bias |
| Jimenez (2020) | USA | Cross sectional | General public (n = 290) | M 37.12 (SD 12.03) | 122 (40%) | 180 (59%) | Low risk of bias |
| Jovančević & Milićević (2020) | Serbia/Latin‐America | Cross sectional | General public (n = 412) |
Serbia: (M = 30.34; SD = 9.89) Latin America (M = 33.51, SD = 11.23) |
Serbia (Female = 250) Latin‐America (Female = 95) | Serbia (N = 292, Male = 42) Latin‐America (N = 120, Male = 25) | Unclear risk of bias |
| Kebede (2020) | Ethiopa | Cross sectional | Visitors to a medical centre (n = 247) | M 30.5 (SD 10.2) | 23% 58 | 77% 189 | Unclear risk of bias |
| Kowalski (2020a) Study 1 | Poland | Cross sectional | General public (n = 507) | 44.07 (±14.41) | 253 (49.9%) | Not reported | Low risk of bias |
| Kowalski (2020b) Study 2 | Poland | Cross sectional | General public (n = 840) | 29.94 (±10.39) | 607 (72.3%) | Not reported | Low risk of bias |
| Lahiri (2021) | India | Cross sectional | General public (n = 2646) | aged ≤35 years (43.08%), | 998 (37.72%) | 1648 (62.28%) | High risk of bias |
| Lao et al. (2023) | China | Cross sectional | Residents in Hubei province (n = 229) | M(SD) 25.37(8.34) | 141 (61.6%) | 88 (38.4%) | Low risk of bias |
| Lee (2020) | South Korea, Ethiopia, and Democratic Republic of Congo | Cross sectional | General public (n = 748) (from South Korea, Ethiopia, and Democratic Republic of Congo) | South Korea M = 22.9, SD = 4.7 Ethiopia M = 26, SD = 5.7 Democratic Republic of Congo M = 26.1, SD = 4.2 | South Korea female: 215(58.1%) Ethiopia female: 60 (34.3%) Democratic Republic of Congo female: 103(52.6%) | South Korea male: 155(42.9%) Ethiopia male: 115(65.7%) Democratic Republic of Congo male: 93(47.4%) | High risk of bias |
| Lee et al. (2021) | South Korea | Cross sectional | General public (n = 970) |
M = 47.44 SD = 14.78 |
499 (51.4%) | 471 (48.6%) | Unclear risk of bias |
| Li (2021) | USA | Cross sectional | Student pharmacists (n = 326) |
18–26: 258 (79.1%) 27: 68 (20.9%) |
242 females (74.2%) | 84 males (25.8%) | Unclear risk of bias |
| Matkovic et al. (2021) | USA | Intervention study | General public (n = 344) | M = 32.69, SD = 11.60 | 54.1% | 43.9% | Unclear risk of bias |
| Milman (2020) | USA | Cross sectional | General public (n = 408) | M 37.24 (SD 10.90) | 174 | 233 | Unclear risk of bias |
| Mousavi et al. (2022) | Afghanistan | Cross sectional | General pubic (n = 450) |
17–26 (65.8%) 27–36 (22.9%) 37–46 (8.2%) 47–56 (2.2%) >57 (0.9%) |
138 (28.4%) | 322 (71.6%) | Unclear risk of bias |
| Nelson (2021) | USA | Cross sectional |
Employees of Colorado State University (n = 508) |
M 41.1 (SD12.5) | 305 (60.0%) | 200 (39.4%) | Unclear risk of bias |
| Norman (2020) | UK | Cross sectional | General public (n = 477) | M 46.22 (SD 15.20) | 243 (50.9%) | 234 (49.1%) | Low risk of bias |
| Owhonda (2022) | Nigeria | Cross sectional | General public (n = 1294) | M 39.6 (SD 11.9) | 584 (45.1%) | 710 (54.9%) | Unclear risk of bias |
| Ozdemir et al. (2022) | Singapore | Cross sectional | General public (n = 897) | M 42 (SD 12.8) | 427 (47.6%) | 470 (52.4%) | Low risk of bias |
| Pal et al. (2020) | India | Cross sectional | People with T1 Diabetes (n = 212) | M 25.1 (SD 4.3) | 52% (111) | 48% (101) | Unclear risk of bias |
| Pan (2020) | China | Cross sectional | Factory workers (n = 3035) |
<30 years of age (1552, 51.1%) |
1423 (46.9%) | 1612 (53.1%) | Low risk of bias |
| Prete (2020) | Italy | Cross sectional | General public (n = 618) | M 38.55 (SD = 15.26) | 441 (71.4%) | 177 (28.6%) | Unclear risk of bias |
| Qian (2020) | China | Cross sectional | General public (n = 1011) (from Wuhan % Shanghai) |
Wuhan: 18–24 89 (21.6%) Shanghai: 18–24 75 (13.9%) |
Not reported |
Wuhan: 255 (50.0%) Shanghai: 255 (48.7) |
Low risk of bias |
| Rattay (2021) | Germany | Cross sectional | General public (n = 27,957) |
18–29: 19.1% 30–45: 30.1% 46–60: 28% >60: 22.8% |
51% women n = 14,133 | 49% men n = 13,824 | Unclear risk of bias |
| Rui (2021) Study 1 | China | Cross sectional | General public (n = 321) |
18–30: 55 (17.1% 31–45: 97 (30.2%) >46: 169 (52.6%) |
167 (52%) | 154 (48%) | Low risk of bias |
| Rui (2021) Study 2 | China | Cross sectional | General public (n = 319) |
18–30: 64 (20.1%) 31–45: 82 (25.7%) >46:173 (54.2%) |
155 (48.6%) | 164 (51.4) | Low risk of bias |
| Rui (2021) Study 3 | China | Cross sectional | General public (n = 315) |
18–30: 63 (20%) 31–45: 87 (27.6%) >46: 165 (52.4%) |
174 (55.2%) | 141 (44.8) | |
| Rui (2021) Study 4 | China | Cross sectional | General public (n = 343) |
18–30: 84 (24.5%) 31–45: 110 (32.1%) >46: 149 (43.4%) |
186 (54.2%) | 157 (45.8) | Low risk of bias |
| Rui (2021) Study 5 | China | Cross sectional | General public (n = 329) |
18–30: 74 (22.5%) 31–45: 86 (26.1%) >46: 169 (51.4%) |
176 (53.5%) | 153 (46.5) | Low risk of bias |
| Rui (2021) Study 6 | China | Cross sectional | General public (n = 315) |
18–30: 60 (19%) 31–45: 80 (25.4%) >46: 175 (55.6%) |
152 (48.3% | 163 (51.7) | Low risk of bias |
| Sengeh (2020) | Sierra Leone | Cross sectional | General public (n = 1,253) | 18–39 (58%) | 604 (48%) | 648 (52%) | High risk of bias |
| Sharma | USA | Cross sectional | University students (n = 713) | M 24.61 (SD 8.60) | 501 (70.3%) | 176 (24.7%) | Unclear risk of bias |
| Shook (2020) | USA | Cross sectional | General public (n = 1,023) | M 46.32 (SD 16.57) | 514 (50.8%) | 497 (49.1%) | Unclear risk of bias |
| Si et al. (2021) | US | Cross sectional | General public (n = 1,019) | M 46.33 (SD 16.57) | 514 female | 497 male | Low risk of bias |
| Souliotis (2021) | Greece | Cross sectional | General public (n = 923) | 25–54 (51.4%) | 49.2% | 50.8% | Unclear risk of bias |
| Stojanovic (2021) | Italy | Cross sectional | General public (n = 1332) |
<25: (57%) 26–50 (33.3%) >51 (9.7%) |
899 (68%) | 422 (32%) | Low risk of bias |
| Trifiletti (2021) | Italy | Cross sectional | General public (n = 248) | M 34.78 (SD 14.76) | 176 females | 72 males | Unclear risk of bias |
| van den Broek‐Altenburg (2021) | Netherlands and Belgium | Cross sectional |
General public The Netherlands (n = 2637) General public Flanders (n = 1678) |
18–25: 483 (11.19%) | 2250 (52.14%) | not reported | Low risk of bias |
| Wang (2021) | China | Cross sectional | Pregnant women (n = 15,428) | <30 (59.9%) | 100% | None | Low risk of bias |
| Zewude et al. (2021) | Ethiopia | Cross sectional | People from the urban‐based informal economy (n = 384) | M 24.6 (SD 6.87) | 161 (42.5%) | 218 (57.5%) | Low risk of bias |