Table 4.
Quality appraisal of included studies.
| Study | Were the criteria for inclusion in the sample clearly defined and adhered to? | Was the sample included in the study representative of the population of interest? | Were the determinants measured in a valid and reliable way? | Were the behaviours measured in a valid and reliable way? | Were confounding factors/covariates identified? | Were strategies to deal with confounding factors/covariates stated and used? | Was appropriate statistical analysis used? | Is there evidence of selective reporting? | Overall Quality Rating |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Al‐Sejari (2021) | Yes | No | Yes—scale | No—single item | Yes | Unclear | Yes | No | Low risk of bias |
| Al‐Shammary (2021) | Yes | Unclear | Yes—single item | Yes—single item | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Low risk of bias |
| Al‐Wutayd (2021) | No | Yes | Yes—single item | Yes—single item | Unclear | Yes | Yes | No | Unclear risk of bias |
| Apanga (2021) | Yes | Unclear | Yes—single item | Yes—single item | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Low risk of bias |
| Barrett (2021) | Yes | Unclear | Unclear | Yes—scale | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Low risk of bias |
| Bogg (2020) | Yes | Unclear | Yes—scale | Yes—single item | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Low risk of bias |
| Bruine de Bruin et al. (2020) | Yes | Yes | Yes—scale | Yes—scale | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Low risk of bias |
| Bruine de Bruin et al. (2020) | No | Yes | Yes—scale | Unclear | Unclear | Unclear | Yes | No | High risk of bias |
| Callaghan (2021) | Yes | Yes | Yes—scale | Yes—scale | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Low risk of bias |
| Cowling et al. (2020) | Yes | No | Yes—scale | Yes—scale | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Low risk of bias |
| Dixon et al. (2022) | Yes | Yes | Yes—scale | Yes—scale | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Low risk of bias |
| Dwipayanti (2021) | Unclear | No | Yes—scale | Yes—scale | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Unclear risk of bias |
| Fujii (2021) | Unclear | Yes | Unclear | Unclear | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Unclear risk of bias |
| Graupensperger (2021) | No | Unclear | Yes—scale | Yes—single item | No | No | Yes | No | High risk of bias |
| Haliwa et al. (2020) | No | Yes | Yes—scale | Yes—scale | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Low risk of bias |
| Hsing (2021) | No | Yes | No—scale | Yes—scale | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Unclear risk of bias |
| Iqbal (2021) | No | Unclear | Yes—single item | Yes—single item | Yes | No | Unclear | No | High risk of bias |
| Jang et al. (2020) | Yes | Yes | Yes—scale | Unclear | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Low risk of bias |
| Jimenez (2020) | Yes | No | Yes—scale | Yes—scale | Yes | No | Unclear | No | Low risk of bias |
| Jovančević & Milićević (2020) | No | No | Yes—scale | Yes—scale | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Unclear risk of bias |
| Kebede (2020) | No | No | Unclear | Unclear | Unclear | Unclear | Yes | No | High risk of bias |
| Kowalski (2020a) Study 1 | Yes | Unclear | Yes—scale | Yes—single item | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Low risk of bias |
| Kowalski (2020b) Study 2 | Yes | Unclear | Yes—scale | Yes—single item | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Low risk of bias |
| Lahiri (2021) | Yes | No | No—scale | Unclear | Yes | Unclear | Yes | Yes | High risk of bias |
| Lao et al. (2023) | Yes | Unclear | Yes—scale | Yes—single item | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Low risk of bias |
| Lee (2020) | Yes | No | Yes—single item | Unclear | Unclear | Unclear | Yes | No | High risk of bias |
| Lee (2021) | Yes | Yes | Yes—scale | Yes—scale | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Unclear risk of bias |
| Li (2021) | Unclear | Unclear | Yes—scale | Yes—scale | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Unclear risk of bias |
| Matkovic et al. (2021) | No | Unclear | Yes—scale | Yes—scale | No | Unclear | Yes | No | Unclear risk of bias |
| Milman (2020) | Yes | No | Yes—scale | Unclear | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Unclear risk of bias |
| Mousavi et al. (2022) | Yes | No | Yes—single item | Unclear | Yes | Yes | Yes | Yes | Unclear risk of bias |
| Nelson (2021) | Yes | No | Unclear | Yes—scale | Yes | No | Yes | No | Unclear risk of bias |
| Norman (2020) | Yes | Yes | Unclear | Yes—single item | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Low risk of bias |
| Owhonda (2021) | No | Yes | No—scale | Yes—scale | Yes | Yes | Yes | Unclear | Unclear risk of bias |
| Lee et al. (2021) | Yes | Yes | Yes—scale | Yes—single item | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Low risk of bias |
| Pal et al. (2020) | Yes | Unclear | Unclear | Unclear | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Unclear risk of bias |
| Pan (2020) | No | Yes | Yes—single item | Yes—scale | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Low risk of bias |
| Prete (2020) | No | No | Yes—scale | Yes—single item | Yes | No | Yes | No | Unclear risk of bias |
| Qian (2020) | Yes | Yes | Unclear | Yes—single item | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Low risk of bias |
| Rattay (2021) | Unclear | Yes | Yes—single item | Unclear | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Unclear risk of bias |
| Rui (2021) Study 1 | Yes | Unclear | Yes—scale | Yes—scale | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Low risk of bias |
| Rui (2021) Study 2 | Yes | Unclear | Yes—scale | Yes—scale | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Low risk of bias |
| Rui (2021) Study 3 | Yes | Unclear | Yes—scale | Yes—scale | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Low risk of bias |
| Rui (2021) Study 4 | Yes | Unclear | Yes—scale | Yes—scale | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Low risk of bias |
| Rui (2021) Study 5 | Yes | Unclear | Yes—scale | Yes—scale | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Low risk of bias |
| Rui (2021) Study 6 | Yes | No | Yes—scale | Yes—scale | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Low risk of bias |
| Sengeh (2020) | Yes | Unclear | No—scale | No—scale | Yes | No | Yes | Yes | High risk of bias |
| Sharma | Yes | No | Unclear | Yes—Scale | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Unclear risk of bias |
| Shook (2020) | No | No | Yes—scale | Yes—scale | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Unclear risk of bias |
| Si et al. (2021) | Yes | Yes | Yes—scale | Yes—single item | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Low risk of bias |
| Souliotis (2021) | Yes | Yes | Unclear | Unclear | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Unclear risk of bias |
| Stojanovic (2021) | Yes | No | Yes—scale | Yes—single item | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Low risk of bias |
| Trifiletti (2021) | No | No | Yes—scale | Yes—single item | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Unclear risk of bias |
| van den Broek‐Altenburg (2021) | Yes | Yes | Yes—scale | Yes—scale | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Low risk of bias |
| Wang (2021) | Yes | Yes | Yes—scale | Yes—scale | Yes | No | Yes | No | Low risk of bias |
| Zewude et al. (2021) | Yes | Unclear | Yes—single item | Yes—single item | Yes | Yes | Yes | No | Low risk of bias |